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ELEMENTS 

—OF— 


Farm  Practice 


PREPARED  ESPECIALLY  FOR  TEACHING 
ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 


.4  COMPLETE  REVISION  AND  EXTENSION  OF  "AGRICULTURE 
FOR  YOUNG  FOLKS" 


BY 

A.  D.  WILSON 

rURECTOR  OF  AGRICULTURAL  EXTENSION  AND    FARMERS' 
INSTITUTES.   UNIVERSITY  OF  MINNESOTA 


AND 

E.  W.  WILSON 


THIRD  EDITION 


Copyiiglit,    191."),    1919,    1921 

WEBB  PUBLISHING  CO. 

W-8 


^nC.  I^J,     f^f^/c.    BJui 


iiJ^  '.-/--.^lAJLY  ASffJCi':.  ^•:.':ii.  D£.rt. 


PREFACE 

This  book  has  been  prepared  primarily  for  use  in  rural 
schools  and  for  elementary  classes  in  other  schools,  wherever 
it  is  desirable  to  study  the  plain  and  practical  problems 
of  the  farm  and  home  in  their  relation  to  daily  life. 

The  book  deals  largely  with  common  farm  practices, 
rather  than  with  scientific  principles.  It  is  intended  to 
throw  some  light  upon  and  add  interest  to  the  things  that 
are  done  on  the  farm  from  day  to  day.  We  feel  that,  if 
pupils  can  be  interested  and. enabled  to  use  the  farms  and 
the  farm  homes  as  laboratories  in  which  to  observe  and 
apply  the  things  learned  at  school,  a  great  step  will  have 
been  made  toward  bringing  the  school  in  close  touch  with 
the  home  life  of  the  pupils. 

A  study  of  agriculture  in  the  rural  schools  elevates,  in 
the  minds  of  the  farm  youth,  the  calling  of  agriculture. 
A  rather  close  study  of  a  few  farm  problems  impresses 
one  with  the  great  amount  of  knowledge  and  skill  required 
to  operate  a  farm  successfully;  and  must  convince  one  that 
a  farm,  rightly  managed,  affords  as  much  opportunity  for 
development  as  a  professional  or  business  career. 

We  do  not  suggest  that  the  topics  shall  necessarily  be 
taken  up  in  the  order  presented,  but  that  each  teacher 
begin  with  that  portion  of  the  book  dealing  with  the  parti- 
cular phase  of  farm  work  that  is  being  done  on  the  home 
farms  of  the  pupils  at  the  time  the  lesson  is  given. 

Each  section  is  a  complete  reading  lesson,  followed  by 
questions,  examples,  and  exercises,  which  relate  to  the  les- 
son. The  questions  may  be  answered  orally  or  in  the  form 
of  a  language  paper.  The  examples  will  enforce  some  of 
the  main  facts  taught  in  the  text.  The  exercises  will  require 
study  and  observation  of  local  .activities  and  will  help  to 
connect  up  the  lesson  with  the  practical  things  in  the  com- 
munity. This  manner  of  presenting  the  various  sub- 
jects was  chosen  so  that  the  study  of  agriculture  might 
replace  a  part  of  the  regular  reading,  language  and  arith- 
metic   lessons,    and  thus    allow    a    study    of    agriculture 


520510 


without  shortening  the  time  of,  or  crowding  out,  any  other 
subject. 

Many  of  the  complex  problems  encountered  in  the 
management  of  the  farm  are  discussed  here  with  a  view  to 
simplifying  them,  so  that  any  one  may  easily  understand 
the  principles  involved.  It  may  even  prove  valuable  to 
farm  managers,  by  enabling  them  to  put  into  practice 
some  of  the  better  methods  of  soil  and  live  stock  manage- 
ment, and  to  see  clearly  the  aspects  of  farming  as  a  busi- 
ness. 

The  idea  of  preparing  these  lessons  originated  with  Mr. 
D.  A.  Wallace,  editor  of  The  Farmer,  and  we  gratefully 
acknowledge  his  suggestions. 

We  have  freely  used  many  of  the  agricultural  books 
and  bulletins  in  the  library  at  the  Minnesota  Agricultural 
College,  and  have  obtained  much  valuable  information 
therefrom. 

Nearly  all  photographs  used  were  made  by  Mr.  H.  D. 
Ayer,  and  the  drawings  were  made  by  Mr.  C.  H.  Welch 
and  Mr.  G.  F.  Krogh. 

As  it  is  difficult  to  keep  changing  the  prices  of  farm 
produce  and  labor  as  given  in  the  problems,  to  keep  in 
harmony  with  market  fluctuations,  teachers  may  insert 
market  prices  when  assigning  the  lessons. 

A.  D.  WILSON 
E.  W.  WILSON 
University  Farm,  St.  Paul,  Minn. 
May,  1921. 


CONTENTS 

Chapter  Page 

I    SoUs 9 

n    Tillage 19 

m    Fertilizers 31 

IV    Grain  Crops 39 

V    Cultivated  Crops 60 

VI    Hay  and  Pasture  Crops 97 

Vn    Miscellaneous  Crops 116 

Vm    Common  Weeds  and  Their  Eradication 123 

IX    The  Garden 134 

X    Fruit  on  the  Farm 143 

XI    Plant  Disease  and  Insect  Pests 156 

Xn    Live  Stock 165 

Xm    Feeds  and  Feeding 173 

XrV    Horses 177 

XV     Cattle 192 

XVI    Dairying 212 

XVn     Sheep 220 

XVm     Swine 229 

XIX    Poultry,  Birds  and  Bees 244 

XX    Agricultural  Engineering 259 

XXI     Community  Activities 284 

XXn    The  Farm  Home 305 

XXm    Farm  Management 318 

XXIV    Power  Machinery  on  the  Farm 349 


Out  in  the  Fields  with  God. 

The  little  cares  that  fretted  me, 

I  lost  them  yesterda'y 
Among  the  fields,  above  the  sea, 

Among  the  winds  at  play, 
Among  the  lowing  of  the  herds. 

Among  the  rustling  of  the  trees, 
Among  the  singing  of  the  birds, 

The  humming  of  the  bees. 

The  foolish  fears  of  what  may  happen, 

I  cast  them  all  away 
Among  the  clover-scented  grass, 

Among  the  new-mown  hay. 
Among  the  rustling  of  the  corn, 

Where  the  drowsy  poppies  nod, 
Where  ill  thoughts  die  and  good  are  born. 

Out  in  the  fields  with  God. 

— Anonymous. 


ELEMENTS 


OF 


FARM   PRACTICE 


CHAPTER  I 

SOILS 

Soil,  from  the  standpoint  of  the  farmer,  is  that  por- 
tion of  the  earth's  surface  in  which  plants  grow.  It  is 
composed  of  small  particles  of  rock,  as  grains  of  clay  and 
sand,  and  decayed  and  decaying  plants. 

Origin. — We  are  told  that  at  one  time,  many,  many 
years  ago,  the  earth's  surface  was  all  solid  rock,  and  that 
the  wind  and  water  and  frost  have  been  able  to  break  off 
little  pieces  of  rock  to  make  soil.  These  little  pieces  of 
rock  are  called  clay  when  very  fine,  sand  when  a  little 
coarser  than  clay,  and  gravel  when  quite  coarse.  In  the 
mountains,  or  where  there  are  very  large  stones  or  boulders, 


Figure  1. — The  action  of  vegetation,  water  and  the  weather  gradually  causes  the 
disintegration  of  solid  rock. 


10 


ELEMEKTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


large  cracks  will  be  seen  in  the  rocks.  These  cracks  are 
made  by  frost,  by  alternate  expansion  and  contrac- 
tion caused  by  heat  and  cooling,  or  by  the  force  of 
growing  roots.  When  these  crocks  are  formed  little 
particles  of  rock  are  broken  off.  A  strong  wind  will  blow 
these  particles  about  over  the  rocks,  make  them  finer  and 
wear  off  other  particles.  Rain  and  water  running  over 
the  rocks  do  the  same  thing.  The  wind  and  water  tend  to 
gather  the  soil  particles  into  crevices  in  the  rock  and  other 
sheltered   places.     When   several   of   these   little   particles 


Figure  2. — Soil  well  filled  with  humns. 

have  been  gathered  in  one  place,  there  is  the  beginning  of 
a  little  patch  of  soil.  When  this  little  patch  of  soil  becomes 
moist  from  rain  or  melting  snow,  and  the  warm  sun  shines 
on  it,  some  kind  of  a  plant,  like  moss,  will  start  to  grow. 
At  first  these  little  patches  are  very  small  and  plants  can 
grow  only  a  very  little  while.  When  the  plants  die  they 
are  added  to  the  soil.  Then  other  small  pieces  of  rock  are 
added  and  still  other  plants  grow  and  die  and  are  added 
to  the  little  patch  of  soil.  This  has  been  going  on  for  many 
thousands  of  years,  so  that  nearly  the  whole  surface  of  the 
earth  is  covered  with  soil. 


80IL8  H 

Parts  of  Soil. — All  soils  are  then  composed  of  two  parts, 
the  part  made  up  of  little  particles  of  rock  that  we  call 
sand  or  clay  or  gravel,  and  the  part  made  up  of  decayed 
or  decaying  plants.  This  part  is  called  organic  matter, 
vegetable  matter  or  humus.  Wherever  crops  are  to  grow 
it  is  necessary  that  the  soil  have  both  particles  of  rock 
and  vegetable  matter.  In  a  sand  pit  there  is  no  vegetable 
matter  in  the  soil  and  plants  grow  very  poorly  or  not  at 
all.  In  an  old  drained  lake-bed,  where  the  soil  is  made 
up  almost  entirely  of  vegetable  matter  (peat),  crops  do  not 
grow  well.  In  farming  it  is  very  important  that  there  be 
a  proper  combination  of  these  two  parts.  The  part  made 
up  of  particles  of  rock  is  called  mineral  matter. .  The  part 
made  up  of  dead  and  partly  decayed  plants  is  called  organic 
matter.  Plants  contain  both  mineral  and  organic  matter. 
Questions: 

1.  What  is  soil? 

2.  How  has  soil  gradually  been  formed  from  solid  rock? 

3.  What  are  the  two  important  parts  of  soil? 
Arithmetic: 

1.  If  there  are  2  lbs.  of  ash  in  100  lbs.  of  dry  vegetable  matter, 
how  many  lbs.  of  ash  in  one  ton  (2,000  lbs.)  of  vegetable  matter? 

2.  If  there  is  3^  lb.  of  vegetable  matter  in  10  lbs.  of  soil,  how 
many  pounds  of  vegetable  matter  in  100  lbs.  of  soil? 

3.  How  many  pounds  of  vegetable  matter  or  manure  would  be 
required  to  cover  12  acres,  if  six  tons  were  applied  to  each  acre? 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  SOILS 

In  the  study  of  soils  one  finds  that  there  are  many 
different  kinds.  To  enable  us  to  talk  and  write  about 
soils,  and  to  understand  what  is  meant,  it  is  necessary  to 
classify  soils  so  that  everyone  will  know  what  is  meant 
when  a  certain  kind  of  soil  is  named.  The  most  common 
names  applied  to  soils  are  gravel,  sand,  loam,  clay  and 
peat. 

Gravel  is  the  coarse  part  of  the  soil.  The  particles  may 
vary  in  size  from  that  of  kernels  of  wheat  to  stones  as  large 
as  hen's  eggs.  Such  soil  is  not  as  a  rule  productive.  The 
particles  are  so  coarse  that  they  hold  very  little  moisture 
or  plant  food.  Soil  containing  a  large  percentage  of  gravel 
is  called  very  poor  or  very  light. 


12  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Sand  is  the  name  applied  to  soil  with  particles  much 
finer  than  gravel  but  still  comparatively  coarse.  The 
particles  may  be  as  large  as  grains  of  common  granulated 
sugar  or  cornmeal.  Sandy  soil  is  much  more  productive 
than  gravelly  soils.  The  particles  being  finer,  they  hold 
moisture  better  and  usually  contain  more  available  plant 
food. 

Clay  is  the  name  applied  to  the  very  fine  particles  of 
soil.  Clay  is  often  as  fine  or  finer  than  wheat  flour.  Gen- 
erally clay  soils  are  the  most  productive  soils,  because  the 
grains  are  very,  very  fine.  A  given  quantity  of  clay  will 
hold  much  more  water  than  the  same  quantity  of  sand 
or  gravel.  Clay  soil  is  very  sticky  when  wet,  while  sandy 
soil  is  not. 

Loam  is  a  name  applied  to  soil  that  has  a  liberal  amount 
of  vegetable  matter  mixed  with  either  sand  or  clay  or  both. 
If  a  soil  has  a  very  large  proportion  of  clay,  it  is  called  a 
clayey  loam.  Nearly  all  the  soils  have  a  mixture  of  sand 
with  clay,  but  the  proportion  of  each  naturally  varies. 
On  this  account  there  are  all  kinds  of  mixtures,  varying 
from  nearly  all  sand  and  very  little  clay,  to  nearly  all  clay 
and  very  little  sand. 

Sandy  Soils.- — Soils  containing  a  large  percentage  of 
sand  are  known  as  sandy  soils,  or  sandy  loam  soils.  They 
do  not  hold  as  much  moisture  as  clay  soils.  Such  soils, 
therefore,  warm  up  more  quickly  in  the  spring  than  do 
clay  soils,  and  crops  grow  more  quickly.  If  it  does  not 
rain  for  several  days  or  weeks,  crops  on  such  soils  are  likely 
to  be  injured  for  lack  of  moisture.  Sandy  soils  contain 
less  plant  food  than  clay  soils  and  give  it  up  more  readily. 
On  this  account  clay  soils  are  regarded  as  better;  but, 
if  sandy  soils  are  well  handled,  they  produce  good 
crops  and  are  more  easily  plowed  and  cared  for  than  clay  soils. 

Clay  Soils. — Soils  containing  a  large  percentage  of  clay 
are  known  as  clay  soils,  or  as  clay  loam  soils.  Because 
the  particles  of  clay  are  very  small,  there  is  more  surface 
exposed  in  a  given  amount  of  clay  soil  than  in  the  same 
amount  of  sandy  soil.  Soil  holds  water  on  the  surface  of 
the  particles,  on  which  account  a  clay  soil  holds  much  more 
water  than  a  sandy  soil.     The  fact  that  a  soil  with  fine 


SOILS  13 

particles  has  more  surface  exposed  than  soil  with  coarser 
particles  is  illustrated  by  an  apple.  The  surface  of  a  whole 
apple  is  represented  by  the  peeling.  If  the  apple  is  quartered, 
or  cut  into  many  pieces,  each  cut  increases  the  exposed 
surface  of  the  apple  by  the  two  newly  cut  surfaces.  The 
apple  is  no  larger.  The  exposed  surface  represented  by 
the  peeling  is  the  same.  If  a  grain  of  sand  is  pulverized 
to  form  many  particles  of  clay,  the  amount  of  surface  will 
be  greatly  increased.  Because  clay  holds  moisture  better, 
it  warms  up  more  slowly  in  the  spring.  Crops  start  more 
slowly,  but  are  much  less  Ukely  to  be  injured  by  drouth. 

Questions: 

1.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  terms,  gravel,  sand,  clay? 

2.  Tell  the  difference  between  a  sandy  loam,  and  a  clay  loam. 

3.  Explain  why  clay  soil  holds  moisture  better  than  sandy  soil. 

Arithmetic: 

1.  If  a  cubic  foot  of  sandy  soil  weighs  90  lbs.  and  holds  17%  of 
its  weight  of  water,  how  many  pounds  of  water  will  it  hold? 

2.  If  a  cubic  foot  of  clay  soil  weighs  75  lbs.  and  holds  30%  of 
its  weight  of  water,  how  many  pounds  of  water  will  it  hold? 

SOURCES  OF  PLANT  FOOD 

Plant  Food  in  the  Air. — Plants  as  well  as  animals  must 
have  food;  and  it  is  as  important  to  know  what  plants 
need  and  how  to  supply  their  needs  as  it  is  to  know  how  to 
feed  animals  properly. 

The  greater  portion  of  the  plant  food  comes  from  the 
air  rather  than  from  the  soil.  All  those  substances  in  a 
plant  called  carbohydrates  as  starch,  sugar  and  fibrous 
tissue,  are  made  entirely  from  carbon  dioxide  gas  and 
water.  The  plant  takes  in  carbon  dioxide  from  the  air, 
through  its  leaves,  and  water  from  the  soil,  through  its 
roots.  When  the  water  and  the  carbon  dioxide  are  brought 
together  in  the  leaves  of  the  plant,  and  the  sun  shines  on 
the  leaves,  the  sun  and  the  green  coloring  matter  (the 
chlorophyll)  in  the  leaves  cause  the  water  and  the  carbon 
dioxide  to  unite.  The  oxygen  and  hydrogen  in  the  water 
unite  with  the  carbon  in  the  carbon  dioxide.  These  three 
elements  form  starch.  The  oxygen  in  the  carbon  dioxide 
is  liberated  and  given  off  to  the  air.  In  this  way  plants 
purify  the  air  for  animals  to  breathe  and  animals  exhale 
air   containing   carbon   dioxide,    which   furnishes   food   for 


14 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


plants.  Some  of  the  starch  formed  in  a  plant  is  slightly 
modified  during  the  growth  of  the  plant  and  forms  fibrous 
tissue  and  sugar.  Examine  kernels  of  wheat  and  corn 
and  a  potato  to  see  what  a  very  large  part  is  starch.  The 
white  part  of  them  all  is  very  largely  starch.  It  is  seen 
that  by  far  the  greater  portion  of  our  common  plants  does 
not  come  from  the  soil,  as  is  usually  supposed,  but  is  formed 
from  the  poisonous  gas,  carbon  dioxide, 
from  the  air,  and  water  from  the  soil. 
Plant  Food  in  the  Soil. — A  small  por- 
tion of  every  plant  comes  from  the  plant 
food  in  the  soil.  A  fairly  good  idea  of  the 
proportion  of  any  plant  that  is  taken  from 
the  soil  is  obtained  by  burning  the  plant.  proxiWe ^"^mp^ositf^ 
The  ashes  remaining  represent  nearly  the  gLlu^part  If"  the^tufen 
whole  amount  that  came  from  the  soil,  are  composed  of  min- 
This  portion,  though  small,  is  absolutely  xheMSus  loTpo^sl^of 
necessary  for  plant  growth.  One  may  afr.^and  wate"!^  ^'^°"'  *^^ 
liken  the  plant  food  taken  from  the  soil  to 
salt  eaten  by  animals.  It  furnishes  a  very  small  part  of  the 
food  required,  but  is  absolutely  necessary.  Hence  the  impor- 
tance of  having  a  fertile  soil  that  will  furnish  these  sub- 
stances as  needed  by    the    growing    crop. 

Plants  are  able  to  get  food  from  the  soil  only  when 
it  is  in  a  soluble  form — that  is,  when  the  plant  food  will 
dissolve  in  water  as  sugar  dissolves  in  tea. 

Soluble  Plant  Food. — When  a  soil  contains  plenty  of 
soluble  plant  food  it  is  said  to  be  fertile.  When  plant 
food  becomes  soluble  in  the  soil  it  is  dissolved  in  the  soil 
water.  Thics  water  containing  the  plant  food,  surrounds 
the  fine  roots  and  root  hairs  of  the  plant,  and  passes  through 

their  thin  walls  just  as 
nourishment  enters  the 
blood  vessels  in  the  ani- 
mal body.  In  this  way 
plants  get  their  food, 
soluble  organic  matter  and 
soluble  mineral  matter, 
A  diagram  showing  the  compos-  from  the  soil.    They  take 


Figure  4 

tion  of  a  potato 
No.  42. 


From  Minnesota  Bulletin    .^     ^^^     ^j^^^      ^^^^     ^-^j^ 


SOILS  15 

large  quantities  of  water.  The  water  is  given  off  from  the 
leaves  into  the  air,  leaving  the  plant  food  taken  from  the 
soil  in  the  plant.  To  show  plainly  that  liquid  passes  up 
through  the  stem  of  a  plant  and  into  the  leaves,  set  a 
branch  from  a  house  plant  into  a  bottle  of  red  ink  or  col- 
ored liquid,  and  watch  results.  It  is  seen  that  large 
amounts  of  water  are  needed  by  growing  plants.  Scientists 
have  shown  that  to  produce  one  pound  of  dry  product,  as 
hay  or  corn  fodder,  a  plant  takes  from  the  soil  and  gives 
off  to  the  air  from  200  to  500  pounds  of  water. 

Since  plants  use  water  from  which  to  make  starch  and 
other  similar  substances,  as  well  as  large  quantities  to  take 
up  the  other  plant  food,  it  is  very  necessary  that  they  be 
supplied  with  sufficient  water  at  all  times. 

Soli  Moisture. — There  is  in  most  places  enough  moisture 
from  rainfall  or  irrigation  to  produce  good  crops,  but  it 
is  not  always  available  at  the  right  time;  and  often,  dur- 
ing the  growing  season,  there  may  be  a  shortage  for  several 
weeks.  Unless  land  is  in  good  condition  to  hold  moisture, 
and  well  cultivated  to  prevent  evaporation  from  the  sur- 
face, it  may  become  too  dry,  and  then  the  plants  will  not 
grow  well  or  may  die.  Farmers  can  avoid  this  difficulty 
largely  by  keeping  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil,  which  holds 
moisture  like  a  sponge;  and  by  thorough  cultivation  of 
the  surface,  which  prevents,  to  a  large  extent,  the  loss  of 
soil  water  by  evaporation.  By  cultivation  the  soil  is  loosened 
at  the  surface  and  the  water  in  the  ground  cannot  rise 
readily  by  capillarity,  because  it  is  separated  from  the  sun 
and  wind  by  this  layer  of  loose  soil. 

It  is  in  such  times  that  the  skillful  farmer,  or  the  man 
who  knows  best  how  to  handle  his  soil,  can  get  good  crops, 
when  farmers  who  do  not  know  or  care,  but  just  ''trust 
to  luck,"  fail. 
Questions: 

1.  Of  what  substances  are  plants  largely  composed? 

2.  Tell  how  these  substances  are  converted  into  plant  tissue. 

3.  From  what  source  does  a  plant  get  a  small  but  essential  por- 
tion of  its  food? 

Arithmetic: 

1.  How  many  pounds  of  wheat  are  produced  on  an  acre  yielding 
20  bus.?     (A  bu.  of  wheat  weighs  60  lbs.) 


It 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


2.  How  many  pounds  of  com  are  produced  on  an  acre  yielding 
40  bus.?     (A  bu.  of  shelled  com  weighs  56  lbs.) 

3.  How  many  pounds  of  potatoes  are  produced  on  an  acre  yield- 
ing 150  bu.?     (A  bu.  of  potatoes  weighs  60  lbs.) 

AVAILABLE  PLANT  FOOD 

Amount  of  Plant  Food. — Most  soils  contain  enough 
plant  food  to  grow  crops  for  many  years,  several  hundred 
perhaps,  but  this  plant  food  is  not  present  in  the  soil  in 
a  soluble  form  and  it  is  well  it  is  not.  If  it  were  soluble 
it  would  be  dissolved  by  the  water  during  a  heavy  rain, 
and  as  the  water  flowed  off  over  the  fields  and  into  the 
river  it  would  carry  with  it  the  plant  food,  thus  leaving 
the  soil  unproductive.  This  may  be  better  understood  if 
one  takes  two  glasses  of  water,  puts  a  spoonful  of  sand 
into  one  and  a  spoonful  of  sugar  into  the  other,  and  stirs. 
Then  carefully  pour  the  water  out  of  both  glasses.  The 
sugar  being  soluble  has  been  dissolved  and  will  pass  out 


Figure  6. — (1)  A  piece  of  sod  showing  the  grass  roots.  (2)  A  lump  of  earth  taken 
from  a  field  that  has  grown  corn  continuously  for  fourteen  years  and  which  is 
badly  depleted  of  vegetable  matter. 


SOILS  17 

of  the  glass  with  the  water.     The  sand  is  not  soluble  and 
will  remain  in  the  glass. 

Only  a  very  small  amount  of  soluble  plant  food  is  needed 
to  grow  a  crop;  but  while  the  amount  is  small,  it  is  absolutely 
necessary  to  have  enough  of  it  to  supply  the  plants. 

How  Plant  Food  Is  Made  Soluble. — There  are  many 
different  ways  of  making  the  insoluble  plant  food  in  the 
soil  soluble.  These  are  Nature's  ways,  and  the  change 
takes  place  naturally  in  soils  under  favorable  conditions. 
But  farmers  can  do  a  great  many  things  to  assist  Nature 
in  this  work. 

One  very  important  condition  of  soil,  which  favors  mak- 
ing plant  food  soluble,  is  to  keep  the  soil  well  supplied  with 
vegetable  matter  as  it  was  when  the  farmer  first  broke 
up  the  virgin  sod.  Get  a  small  piece  of  sod  from  a  new 
piece  of  breaking,  and  a  handful  of  soil  from  an  old  field 
that  has  grown  nothing  but  corn  or  grain  for  a  great  many 
years.  Notice  that  the  first  is  tough  and  is  held  together 
by  many  fine  roots  interwoven  among  the  soil  grains.  The 
handful  of  earth  from  the  old  field  contains  little  except 
the  particles  of  soil. 

The  plant  roots,  as  well  as  other  parts  of  plants  found 
in  soil,  are  called  vegetable  matter.  When  this  vegetable 
matter  is  partly  decomposed,  it  is  called  humus. 

Decay  of  Vegetable  Matter. — When  the  weather  is 
warm  and  the  soil  moist,  the  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil 
begins  to  decay.  The  vegetable  matter  is  composed  of 
plants,  and  is  made  up  of  the  things  that  growing  plants 
need  for  food.  When  the  vegetable  matter  decays,  the 
substances  of  which  it  is  composed  are  set  free  or  liberated, 
thus  making  plant  food  soluble.  The  vegetable  matter 
decaying  in  the  soil  not  only  liberates  the  plant  food  of 
which  it  is  composed,  but  aids  very  much  in  making  some 
of  the  insoluble  plant  foods  in  the  mineral  particles  of  soil 
soluble.  It  also  aids  by  making  the  soil  warmer,  as  heat 
is  given  off  by  a  decomposing  manure  pile,  and  by  giving 
off  an  acid,  called  an  organic  acid,  because  it  is  formed  from 
organic  matter.  This  acid  acts  on  the  soil  grains  and  dis- 
solves a  small  amount  of  mineral  matter  off  their  surfaces. 


18  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Plant  food  is  thus  made  soluble  much  more  rapidly  in 
a  soil  that  contains  a  good  supply  of  vegetable  matter,  as 
new  sod  land,  than  in  an  old  soil  from  which  much  of  the 
vegetable  matter  has  been  used. 

Many  soils  that  have  produced  grain  and  corn  a  great, 
many  years  without  the  addition  of  manure  have  become 
nearly  depleted  of  vegetable  matter;  and,  while  they  usually 
contain  plenty  of  plant  food,  it  is  in  an  insoluble  form  and 
plants  cannot  make  use  of  it. 

Adding  Vegetable  Matter. — A  farmer  can  add  vege- 
table matter  to  his  soil  by  growing  on  it  once  in  every  few 
years  such  crops  as  clover,  timothy  and  other  grass  crops. 
These  crops  grow  more  than  one  year  and  consequently 
have  a  large  root  system.  These  roots  add  a  large  supply 
of  vegetable  matter;  so  several  crops  of  corn  or  grain  can 
be  grown  successfully  following  a  crop  of  grass.  The 
application  of  barnyard  manure  is  another  way  by  which 
the  farmer  can  put  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil  and  thereby 
increase  its  producing  power. 
Questions: 

1.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  term  vegetable  matter  in  the 
soil? 

2.  In  what  way  does  vegetable  matter  assist  in  making  plant 
food  soluble? 

3.  In  what  ways  may  a  farmer  add  vegetable  matter  to  the  soil? 
Arithmetic: 

1 .     How  many  lbs.  of  water  in  20  bus.  of  wheat? 
(Note:     There  are  12  lbs.  of  water  in  100  lbs.  of  wheat.) 
'?..     If  70%  of  wheat  is  starch,  how  many  lbs.  of  starch  in  20  bus.? 
3.     It  requires  500  lbs.  of  water  to  produce  one  pound  of  hay. 
How  much  water  is  required  to  produce  a  ton  of  hay? 

Exercises: 

1.  If  possible,  find  some  large  rocks  and  note  the  cracks  in  them, 
and  the  little  depressions  where  there  is  a  small  accumulation  of  soil. 
Note  the  growth  of  moss  or  other  forms  of  plant  life.  Write  out  a 
description  of  what  you  have  seen. 

2.  Burn  some  dry  plants  and  note  that  a  small  part  of  them  is 
left.  We  call  it  ashes.  It  is  mineral  matter.  The  part  that  disap- 
pears in  the  burning  process  as  smoke  and  gas  is  the  vegetable  matter. 

3.  Get  samples  of  gravel,  sand  and  clay.  Put  a  very  small  amount 
of  each  on  a  piece  of  white  paper.     Notice  how  they  look  and  feel. 


CHAPTER  II 
TILLAGE 

OBJECTS  OF  PLOWING 

Plowing  Not  Monotonous. — Did  you  ever  wonder  as 
you  watched  men  plowing,  why  they  were  doing  it?  Or 
did  you  ever  think  that  plowing  must  be  very  monotonous 
work — going  forth  and  back,  forth  and  back,  across  the 
fieFd  day  after  day?  Plowing  is  not  unpleasant  work.  In 
fact,  most  men  like  to  plow.  It  is  a  quiet,  peaceful  work, 
and  after  the  rush  and  anxiety  of  harvest  time,  it  really 
seems  restful.  It  is  certainly  not  monotonous  work,  if  one 
knows  why  one  is    plowing,  and  how  and  when  to  plow. 

Plowing  Mellows  the  Soil. — One  of  the  chief  reasons 
for  plowing  is  to  stir  the  soil  and  make  it  loose  and  mellow, 
so  the  air  can  circulate  through  it,  and  so  the  moisture 
can  settle  down  into  it.  When  the  soil  has  settled  all  sum- 
mer and  had  the  heavy  rains  beating  on  it,  it  becomes 


Figure  6.     Good  plowing  done  with  a  breaker. 


20 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


packed  and  hard,  and  must  be  loosened  to  prepare  it  for 
a  new  crop,  if  we  desire  to  meet  the  conditions  of  nature. 

Plowing  saves  moisture  for  the  next  crop.  When  the 
ground  is  packed,  as  it  is  when  the  crops  are  removed  in 
the  fall,  it  is  so  hard  that  when  it  rains  much  of  the  water 
runs  off  over  the  surface  instead  of  settling  down  into  the 
soil.  Plowing  overcomes  this  difficulty,  and  by  loosening 
the  surface,  any  moisture  that  may  be  in  the  subsoil  (the 
soil  below  the  plowed  furrow)  is  retained,  because  this 
water  cannot  readily  pass  up  through  the  loose  plowed 
soil.  If  the  ground  were  not  plowed,  the  soil  moisture 
would  rise  to  the  surface  by  capillarity,  just  as  oil  rises  in 
a  lampwick,  and  when  it  got  near  the  surface  the  sun  and 
wind  would  evaporate  it. 

Plowing  Destroys  Weeds. — It  is  natural  for  all  good 

soils  to  be  producing  some- 
thing at  all  times  during 
the  growing  season.  As 
soon  as  the  crop  is  re- 
moved (and  very  often 
before)  weeds  begin  to 
grow.  If  no  precaution  is 
taken,  they  will  go  to  seed, 
and  thus  cause  trouble 
later.  Plowing  stops  their 
gro*wth.  It  also  turns  up 
new  soil  to  the  light,  and 
weed  seeds  which  have 
been  too  deep  in  the  soil 
to  grow,  are  brought  near 
the  surface  where  they  can 
grow.  If  the  plowing  is 
done  in  the  fall  these 
weeds  start  to  grow,  but 
do  not  have  time  to  pro- 
duce seed  before  they  are 

j^lgure  7. — First  year  clover  growing  in  stub-  Killed    by  irOSt. 

ble.      Such  a  crop  is  better  pasture  than  Pln^no*    "Dpc+rnVQ    Ttl- 

manycattlearefurnished.ancT  is  a  benefit  iTlOWmg    UCSUOy^    in 

to  the  soil.  It  would  be  unwise  to  plow  such  sectS. Many  msectS,  SUCh 

a  field  early  in  the  fall,   if  one   has  stock  ^ „„^  u^^^^„„   ^-^A    «,,+ 

that  can  use  the  feed.  as  grass  hoppcrs  and  cut- 


TILLAGE  21 

worms,  are  checked  by  plowing  in  the  fall.  The  inature 
insects  lay  their  eggs  in  the  ground  in  the  fall,  arwl  if  the 
eggs  are  not  disturbed,  they  hatch  out  the  next  spring,  and 
it  is  the  young  from  these  eggs  that  do  the,  damage.  Fall 
plowing  disturbs  the  eggs  and  many  of  them' are. destroyed. 

Plowing  Helps  to  Liberate  Plant  Food. — We  learned 
in  another  lesson  that  plants  require  food  in  a  soluble  form; 
that  is,  food  in  such  condition  that  it  will  dissolve  in  water. 
Plowing  assists  in  making  portions  of  the  soil  soluble,  by 
pulverizing  it,  breaking  up  the  soil  particles,  exposing  new 
surfaces,  and  allowing  the  sun,  wind  and  water  to  act  on 
it  more  freely  than  they  can  act  on  unplowed  land. 

Plowing  Covers  Manure  and  Crop  Residue. — It  is  gen- 
erally regarded  as  good  practice  to  haul  manure  directly 
from  the  barn  to  the  field  before  it  has  rotted,  as  much 
of  its  value  is  saved  in  this  way.  If  a  rather  heavy  dressing 
is  applied,  it  is  troublesome  in  harrowing,  sowing  and  cul- 
tivating, unless  it  is  plowed  under  out  of  reach  of  the  harrow 
and  other  tools,  but  still  where  the  plant  roots  can  reach  it. 

The  plowing  under  of  manure  or  vegetable  matter  saves 
much  of  its  value  from  being  lost  in  various  ways  as  it  would 
be  if  it  were  left  exposed. 
Questions: 

1.  Explain  how  plowing  saves  moisture. 

2.  In  what  two  ways  does  plowing  destroy  weeds? 

3.  How  does  plowing  destroy  insects? 

4.  How  does  plowing  assist  in  liberating  plant  food? 
Arithmetic: 

1.  A  plow  turns  a  furrow  14  inches  wide.  How  many  furrows 
must  one  plow  to  plow  a  strip  8  rods  wide? 

2.  How  far  will  a  team  travel  in  plowing  with  a  single  14-in. 
plow  a  field  8  rods  wide  and  40  rods  long? 

3.  How  many  acres  of  land  in  a  field  8  rods  by  40  rods? 

TIME  TO  PLOW 

Condition  of  Soil. — The  greatest  problem  that  a  plow- 
man has  to  solve,  is  to  determine  the  proper  time  to  plow. 
Both  the  season  of  the  year  and  the  condition  of  the  soil 
must  be  considered.  If  a  heavy,  clayey  soil  is  plowed 
when  it  is  too  wet,  the  lumps  turned  up  become,  when  dry, 
hard  clods,  which  it  is  very  difficult  to  pulverize  into  a  good 
seed  bed.     This  is  especially  true  if  plowing  is  done  in  the 


22  ^  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

spring.  Plowing;  clayey  land  that  is  wet  is  not  objection- 
able, however,  if  done  in  the  fall  and  the  field  is  not  sown 
until  spring,  as  the  thawing  and  freezing  during  winter 
aid  in  pulverizing  any  clods  that  may  form.  Light  sandy 
or  loam  soil  may  be  plowed  when  wet  without  any  serious 
trouble. 

Time  of  Year  to  Plow. — As  a  rule  early  fall  plowing  is 
preferable,  as  it  allows  the  ground  to  become  settled  before 
the  crop  is  sown,  thus  making  it  less  likely  to  become  too 
dry  during  the  summer.  Early  fall  plowing  also  destroys 
weeds  by  turning  up  new  seeds,  which  start  to  grow  in  the 


Figure  8. — Rape  growing  in  a  stubble  field.  Such  a  crop  may  be  raised  for  fall 
feed  at  a  very  small  cost  per  acre.  Rape  is  excellent  feed  for  any  kind  of  stock 
but  milch  cows.     One  might  be  justified  in  neglecting  to  plow  such  a  field  early. 

fall,  and  are  soon  killed  by  frost,  while,  if  the  same  seeds 
were  turned  up  late  in  the  fall,  the  plants  would  grow  in 
the  spring  and  trouble  the  crops.  Fall  plowing  also  facili- 
tates spring  work,  and,  by  leaving  the  soil  exposed  to  the 
elements,  aids  in  liberating  plant  food. 

When  Not  to  Plow  in  Early  Fall. — If  some  catch  crop 
is  growing  in  the  stubble  field,  as  clover,  rape  or  rye,  that 
can  be  used  to  advantage  for  fall  pasture,  fall  plowing — at 
least  early  fall  plowing — is  not  always  advisable.  The 
green  crop  and  pasturing  will  prevent  largely  the  growth 
of  weeds,  and  the  green  crop  checks  to  some  extent  the 


TILLAGE  2Z 

loss  of  moisture.  Thus  at  least  two  reasons  for  early  plow- 
ing are  removed.  The  green  crop,  whether  plowed  under 
or  pastured  off,  would  add  considerable  vegetable  matter 
to  the  soil,  which  would  be  of  more  value  to  the  next  crop 
than  the  plant  food  that  would  be  liberated  by  the  early 
fall  plowing.  As  the  country  becomes  more  thickly  settled, 
and  better  methods  of  farming  are  practiced,  farmers  will 
have  fewer  fields  lying  idle  during  the  fall.  Many  farmers 
now  get  from  50c  to  $4.00  worth  of  feed  per  acre  from  their 
fields  after  the  main  crop  has  been  harvested.  This  in- 
come is  almost  entirely  net  profit,  and  cannot  be  over- 
looked as  more  intensive  systems  of  farming  are  made 
necessary  by  higher  priced  land. 

Fall  Feed. — On  many  farms  pastures  are  very  poor  dur- 
ing the  fall  and  cattle  must  be  fed  dry  feed  or,  what  more 
often  follows,  allowed  to  get  poor  or  to  run  down  in  milk 
flow.  Such  conditions  are  very  undesirable,  and  in  most 
years  unnecessary.  Clover  sown  with  the  grain  crop  in 
the  spring,  or  rye  sown  in  the  stubble  as  soon  as  the  grain 
crop  is  removed,  or  rape  sown  at  almost  any  season  of  the 
year,  will  in  ordinary  years  furnish  an  abundance  of  fall 
pasture.  Good  fall  pasture  not  only  furnishes  cheap  feed 
during  the  fall,  but  gives  stock  an  excellent  start  for  winter. 
While  the  old  habit  of  getting  all  the  land  plowed  in  the 
fall  was  an  excellent  one,  and  necessary  when  grain  was 
the  only  crop,  there  are  now  many  instances  where  much 
better  results  would  be  obtained  were  some  of  the  fields 
made  to  produce  fall  pasture  rather  than  left  bare  during 
the  fall,  in  which  condition  more  or  less  plant  food  is  lost 
by  such  exposure.  If  catch  crops  are  grown  on  the  field  so 
that  early  fall  plowing  can  not  be  done,  it  is  better  to  plow 
late  in  the  fall  than  to  wait  until  spring.  Most  crops  do 
better  on  fall  plowing  than  on  spring  plowing.  Spring 
plowing,   being  loose,  is  likely  to  become  too  dry. 

No  Best  Time. — There  is  no  best  time  to  plow.  The 
time  must  be  determined  by  conditions.  It  is  hoped  that 
those  who  read  this  lesson  will  think  about  the  things 
mentioned,  and  observe  what  the  best  farmers  in  their 
neighborhoods  are  doing.  They  will  then  be  better  able 
to  decide  intelligently  when  to  plow. 


24  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Questions: 

1.  What  danger  is  there  in  plowing  a  heavy  clay  soil  when  wet? 

2.  What  is  to  be  gained  by  early  fall  plowing? 

3.  Give  some  reasons  which  may  make  it  advisable  to  defer 
plowing  tmtil  late  in  the  fall. 

Arithmetic: 

1.  4  lbs.  of  clover  seed  per  acre  is  sufficient  to  sow  with  a  grain 
crop  for  fall  pasture.  What  is  the  cost  per  acre  of  such  pasture  if 
clover  seed  is  worth  15c.  per  pound? 

2.  If  one  acre  of  such  pasture  furnishes  feed  for  a  cow  for  20 
days,  the  cow  giving  ^  pounds  of  butter  fat  per  day,  how  much  butter 
fat  is  produced  per  acre?     What  is  it  worth  at  28c.  per  pound? 

3.  Three  pounds  of  rape  seed  per  acre  is  sufficient  to  sow  with  a 
grain  crop  for  fall  pasture.  What  is  the  cost  per  acre  of  such  a  crop 
if  rape  seed  is  worth  18c.  per  pound? 

4.  One  acre  of  such  rape  will  feed  10  sheep  for  1  week.  They 
will  gain  2  lbs.  per  week  each.  How  many  pounds  of  mutton  are  pro- 
duced per  acre?     What  is  it  worth  at  7c.  per  pound? 

DRY  FARMING 

Dry  fanning  is  a  term  applied  to  the  culture  of  land 
where  the  rainfall  is  not  sufficient  to  grow  crops  in  the  or- 
dinary way.  It  consists  in  deep  plowing,  packing  the  lower 
part  of  the  furrow  slice,  and  the  maintenance  of  a  surface 
mulch  by  persistent  cultivation  of  the  surface  soil  to  pre- 
vent evaporation.  In  many  sections  in  the  western  and 
central  western  part  of  the  United  States,  the  rainfall  is 
less  than  20  inches  per  year.  Ordinary  methods  of  farm- 
ing have  not  proved  profitable  in  such  places,  because  the 
moisture  was  not  sufficient  to  ensure  a  crop.  The  aim  in 
dry  farming  is  to  so  handle  the  soil  that  every  bit  of  mois- 
ture that  falls  will  be  taken  up  by  the  soil,  and  the  loss 
of  moisture  by  evaporation  will  be  as  small  as  possible. 
In  some  sections  where  the  rainfall  is  fairly  plentiful, — that 
is,  from  fifteen  to  twenty  inches  per  year, — a  crop  is  grown 
every  year.  In  other  places,  where  the  rainfall  is  only  ten 
to  fifteen  inches,  a  crop  is  grown  every  other  year. 

Deep  plowing,  or  plowing  from  eight  to  twelve  inches 
deep,  provides  a  loose  mellow  soil  into  which  any  moisture 
that  falls  quickly  settles.  It  provides  also  much  more  room 
for  the  storage  of  moisture  than  is  provided  by  shallow  plow- 
ing, and  allows  the  deep  rooting  of  crops  grown  so "  they 
can  better  get  the  moisture  stored  in  the  soil. 


TILLAGE  25 

Subsurface  packing  is  another  important  feature  of  dry 
farming.  It  is  done  by  means  of  specially  made  heavy 
implements  that  are  drawn  over  the  field  and  pack  the 
lower  part  of  the  furrow  slice,  but  leave  the  surface  mellow 
and  loose.  This  packing  increases  the  capacity  of  the  soil 
to  hold  moisture,  and  packs  the  furrow  slice  against  the 
subsoil  so  that  any  moisture  in  the  subsoil  may  be  brought 
up  into  the  furrow  slice  by  capillarity. 

A  sixrface  mulch  consists  of  from  two  to  four  inches  of 
loose,  fine  soil  over  the  surface  of  the  field.     It  is  main- 


■■  .-■■ 

\  *^g|fl| 

1^.  1.- 

-m 

'"  '^^fBJH 

ii^^ 

m^^. 

fy>*  ■* ' ' 

■^im^^^^-^^^"—^ 

..'■"% 

. 

Figure  9.     A  subsurface  packer. 

tained  by  persistent  disking  and  harrowing.  Every  rain 
packs  this  surface  soil  down,  and,  if  left  packed  down,  the 
moisture  in  the  lower  part  of  the  furrow  slice  or  in  the 
subsoil  will  be  raised  to  the  surface  by  capillarity.  If 
brought  to  the  surface  the  sun  and  wind  will  evaporate  it, 
and  it  will  be  lost.  Harrowing  at  once  after  a  rain  loosens 
up  this  surface  soil,  making  of  it  a  surface  mulch  through 
which  the  moisture  cannot  rise. 
Questions: 

1.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  term,  "dry  farming"? 

2.  What  is  the  reason  for  deep  plowing  in  dry  farming? 

3.  What  do  you  mean  by  the  term,  "surface  mulch"?     Of  what 
use  is  it?    How  is  it  maintained? 


26  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Arithmetic: 

1.  How  many  gallons  of  water  fall  on  an  acre  when  there  is  a 
rainfall  of  1  inch?  (Note:  There  are  43,560  sq.  ft.  of  surface  in  an 
acre.    There  are  231  cu.  in.  in  a  gallon.) 

2.  If  a  cubic  foot  of  soil  will  hold  3  gallons  of  water  by  capillarity, 
how  many  gallons  will  an  acre  of  soil  to  a  depth  of  2  feet  hold?  How 
many  inches  of  rainfall  would  this  represent? 

THE  SEED  BED 

Yields. — The  way  in  which  the  seed  bed  is  prepared 
has  much  to  do  with  the  success  of  the  crop  grown.  Where 
farms  are  large  there  is  a  strong  tendencj^  to  rush  through 
the  spring  work  and  get  in  a  large  acreage  of  crops,  but  often 
without  due  preparation  of  the  seed  bed.  Such  hasty  work 
at  seeding  time  is  very  often  the  chief  cause  of  a  poor  harvest. 

A  yield  of  twenty-five  bushels  of  oats  per  acre  leaves 
the  farmer  no  profit,  as  it  costs  as  much  to  raise  them  as 
they  are  worth.  A  yield  of  forty  bushels  per  acre  leaves 
considerable  margin  for  profit.  Twenty-five  acres  of  oats 
yielding  forty  bushels  per  acre  are  much  more  profitable 
than  forty  acres  yielding  twenty-five  bushels  per  acre,  as 
the  same  amount  of  oats  is  raised  with  less  land  and  labor. 

A  good  seed  bed  must  be  moist  (not  wet),  firm  enough 
so  that  it  will  not  dry  out  quickly,  loose  enough  to  permit 
air  to  enter  the  soil,  and  warm  enough  to  cause  the  seed 
to  germinate.  The  farmer  cannot  regulate  the  weather, 
but  he  can  do  many  things  to  assist  in  regulating  these 
conditions,  and  such  is  the  object  of  tillage. 

Air  is  needed  in  the  soil  to  start  the  seed  to  germinate 
and  to  supply  the  oxygen  necessary  in  the  chemical  ac- 
tion which  must  take  place  in  the  soil,  to  make  the  plant 
food  in  the  seed  available  for  the  growing  plantlet  and  to 
break  down  plant  food  in  the  soil  on  which  the  plantlet 
can  feed  after  it  has  used  up  the  food  stored  in  the  seed. 
Cultivation  with  a  disk  or  harrow  stirs  up  the  soil  and  lets 
the  air  circulate  through  it. 

Moisture  is  needed  in  the  soil — (1)  to  dissolve  the  plant 
food  in  the  seed  planted,  so  that  the  little  plantlet  can  make 
use  of  it;  (2)  to  supply  the  growing  plant  with  water;  (3) 
to  assist  in  the  chemical  action  in  the  soil  which  liberates 
plant  food;  (4)  to  carry  the  plant  food  to  the  plant.     Cul- 


TILLAGE 


27 


tivation  of  the  soil  helps  to  retain  moisture  by  checking 
evaporation  from  the  surface  by  means  of  the  surface  mulch 
and  by  loosening  up  the  surface  soil  so  that  any  rain  that 
falls  will  settle  into  it  instead  of  running  off  over  the  surface. 
Need  of  Heat. — Seed  will  not  germinate,  neither  will 
plants  grow,  unless  the  soil  has  a  certain  amotint  of  heat 
in  it.  Heat  is  necessary  before  chemical  action  can  begin. 
One  can  not  make  the  weather  warmer,  but  cultivation  of 
the  soil,  keeping  it  loose  on  top  so  as  to  check  evaporation 


Figure'  10.— Preparing  the  seed  bed  by  disking. 

from  the  surface,  helps  to  warm  up  the  soil.  The  circu- 
lation of  air,  promoted  by  good  tillage,  is  also  quite  a  factor 
in  warming  the  soil  in  the  spring.  The  air  at  the  surface 
of  the  ground  becomes  warmed  by  the  sun,  and  if  it  can 
enter  the  soil  it  helps  to  warm  that  also. 

Methods  of  Preparing  the  Seed  Bed. — The  best  seed 
bed  is  formed  by  plowing  land  in  the  fall,  so  that  the  por- 
tion turned  over  by  the  plow  will  have  a  chance  to  settle 
down  upon  the  soil  beneath  (the  subsoil).  Then  moisture, 
which  is  usually  present  in  the  subsoil,  may  move  up 
into  the  furrow  slice  by  capillary  action,  as  oil  rises  in  a 
lampwick.     This   moisture   is   often   necessary   to   supply 


28  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  yRAGTIGE 

growing  crops  during  times  when  it  does  not  rain  for  several 
days.  Fall  plowing,  disked  and  harrowed  to  loosen  the 
surface,  makes  an  excellent  seed  bed.  In  other  words, 
a  firm,  mellow  soil  below,  covered  by  two  or  three  inches 
of  loose,  fine  soil  is  the  condition  desired. 

If  land  must  be  plowed  in  the  spring,  very  thorough 
harrowing  is  necessary  to  work  the  soil  up  fine  and  to  assist 
in  firming  the  furrow  slice  so  as  to  form  good  capillary 
connection  with  the  subsoil. 

Questions: 

1.  What  is  the  principal  work  of  the  farmer  during  April? 

2.  What  are  the  essential  conditions  of  a  good  seed  bed? 

3.  Why  is  air  needed  in  the  soil,  and  how  may  it  be  secured? 
•     4.     Why  is  moisture  needed  in  soil?     How  may  it  be  retained? 

Arithmetic: 

1.  If  wheat  is  worth  90c.  per  bu.  and  it  costs  15c.  per  acre  to 
harrow  land,  how  many  times  can  one  afford  to  harrow  an  acre  of  land 
to  increase  the  yield  two  bushels? 

2.  If  wheat  is  worth  90c.  per  bu.  and  it  costs  35c.  per  acre  to 
disk  the  land,  how  many  times  can  one  afford  to  disk  an  acre  of  land 
to  increase  the  yield  two  bushels  per  acre? 

3.  Field  A  yields  twenty-five  bushels  of  oats,  field  B  yields  forty 
bushels  of  oats.  How  many  more  dollars'  worth  of  labor  can  one  afford 
to  put  on  field  A  than  on  field  B,  if  oats  are  worth  35c.  per  bushel? 

PLANTING 

Time  to  Plant. — Crops  that  are  not  easily  killed  by 
frost,  as  wheat  and  oats,  are  usually  the  first  crops  sown. 
Seeds  of  these  crops  will  germinate  at  a  comparatively 
low  temperature,  as  low  as  from  41  to  50  degrees  F.  The 
soil  usually  reaches  this  temperature  in  the  spring  about  as 
soon  as  one  can  begin  disking  and  harrowing,  and  land 
that  is  well  disked  and  harrowed  reaches  this  temperature 
earlier,  as  shown  in  the  preceding  lesson.  It  is  usually 
wise  to  sow  these  crops  as  early  as  possible  and  thus  avoid 
the  danger  from  rust,  smut  and  hot  winds  that  are  more 
likely  to  injure  late  sown  grain  crops. 

Barley  may  be  sown  early,  but  it  is  more  liable  to  in- 
jury from  frost.  Experiments  show  that  the  best  yields 
are  obtained  by  sowing  barley  a  week  or  ten  days  later  than 
the  first  seeding  of  wheat  or  oats.  This  is  also  the  most 
convenient  time,  as  it  permits  one  to  sow  the  other  grains 


TILLAGE 


29 


j&rst,  and  then  to  prepare  the  barley  land.  Barley  may 
be  sown  as  late  as  the  last  of  May,  if  necessary,  in  the 
case  of  low,  wet  land;  but  earlier  sowing  is  better. 

Depth  to  Plant. — There  are  two  ways  to  sow  grain. 
First,  by  a  broadcast  seeder,  which  scatters  the  seed  on 
top  of  the  ground,  where  it  is  covered  by  cultivating  or 
by  harrowing.  In  this  process  some  seeds  are  left  on 
the  surface  uncovered,  while  others  are  covered  as  deep  as 
the  land  is  cultivated.  This  causes  the  seeds  to  germinate 
unevenly;  and,  if  the  land  becomes  too  dry,  much  of  the 


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Figure  11. — Seeding  with  a  drill.     The  dragging  chains  cover  the  seeds,   which 
are  placed  in  the  ground  at  a  uniform  depth. 

seed  on  the  surface  will  not  grow,  while,  if  the  soil  is  too 
wet,  much  of  the  deeply  sown  seed  will  not  grow.  The 
better  method  of  sowing  is  with  a  drill  which  deposits 
all  the  seed  at  a  uniform  depth  and  at  any  depth  desired. 
In  early  seeding  one  should  plant  quite  shallow,  from  one 
to  two  inches,  £is  the  soil  is  warmer  near  the  surface  and  the 
seed  and  small  plants  should  have  all  the  heat  available. 
On  the  other  hand,  seed  sown  too  shallow  will  not  grow 
well  if  the  weather  remains  dry  for  some  time,  as  the  sur- 
face of  the  soil  dries  out  too  quickly  and  leaves  the  plant 


30  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

improperly  supplied  with  moisture.  Later  in  the  season 
when  the  soil  is  warmer  and  plants  grow  more  quickly, 
it  is  well  to  plant  the  seed  deeper,  from  two  to  three  inches, 
thus  giving  the  plants  a  better  chance  to  get  moisture. 

The  depth  to  plant  should  vary  also  with  the  soil.  In 
light,  dry  soil  one  should  sow  deeper  than  in  heavy,  wet  soil. 
Questions: 

1.  What  three  conditions  must  a  seed  have  before  it  can  grow? 

2.  What  can  you  say  of  time  of  planting? 

3.  What  are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  shallow  and 
deep  planting? 

Arithmetic: 

1.  If  the  average  vield  of  wheat  in  the  United  States  is  14.8 
bus.  per  acre,  what  is  the  average  value  of  an  acre  of  at  85c.     per  bushel? 

2.  If  it  costs  $13.00  to  produce  an  acre  of  wheat,  what  is  the 
average  profit  per  acre?     (See  example  No.  1.) 

3.  If  the  average  yield  of  oats  in  the  United  States  is  30  bus. 
per  acre,  what  is  the  value  of  an  average  acre  of  oats  at  38c.  per  bu.? 

4.  If  it  costs  S13.00  to  produce  an  acre  of  oats,  what  is  the  aver- 
age profit  per  acre? 

Exercises: 

1.  Visit  fields  in  your  neighborhood  where  plowing  is  being  done 
and  be  sure  you  can  answer  the  following  questions:  Are  the  furrows 
straight?  How  deep  is  the  land  plowed?  Are  weeds  and  stubble 
being  covered?  Is  the  land  well  pulverized  or  is  it  lumpy?  Is  the 
plowed  land  higher  or  lower  than  the  unplowed  land?  At  what  time 
of  year  is  most  of  the  plowing  done  in  your  neighborhood?  Do  some 
men  plow  better  than  others?     If,  so,  in  what  ways? 

2.  To  see  how  water  moves  in  the  soil  by  capillarity,  put  the  end 
of  a  lump  of  sugar  into  water  or  coffee  and  notice  movement  of  the  liquid 
through  it.  Take  another  cube  of  sugar  and  put  on  top  of  it  all  the 
finely  pulverized  sugar  you  can  get  to  stay  on.  (Granulated  sugar 
will  not  do.)  Touch  the  bottom  of  the  loaf  to  the  water.  Note  rise 
of  water  through  cube  and  note  that  it  stops  when  it  gets  to  the  pul- 
verized sugar.  This  shows  you  how  proper  cultivation  of  the  soil 
may  save  moisture  by  preventing  it  from  reaching  the  surface  where 
it  would  be  evaporated.  The  water  will  pass  up  through  the  pulverized 
sugar  in  a  few  minutes  because  the  sugar  will  dissolve.  It  would  not 
do  this  if  you  had  finely  pulverized  soil  in  place  of  sugar  because  the 
soil  w^ould  not  dissolve  in  the  water. 

3.  It  will  be  an  interesting  experiment  to  plant  short  rows  of 
seeds  at  different  times  and  at  different  depths  and  to  watch  results. 
Early  in  the  spring  plant  four  short  rows  of  wheat  cr  oats  with  ten  or 
fifteen  good  kernels  in  each  row.  In  the  first  row  plant  the  seeds 
one,  two,  three  and  four  inches  deep  respectively  in  the  different  rows. 
Note  the  time  required  for  the  plants  to  come  up,  the  number  of  plants 
that  grow,  and  the  strength  of  the  plants.  Repeat  the  experiment 
later  when  the  soil  is  warm. 


CHAPTER  III 

FERTILIZERS 

Need  of  Fertilizers. — If  a  soil  is  cropped  year  after  year 
and  no  plant  food  is  added,  the  supply  in  the  soil  will  be- 
come exhausted,  or  there  will  be  such  a  small  amount  left 
that  the  crops  cannot  get  enough  food  to  grow  well  and' 
will  produce  very  little  or  fail  entirely.  There  is  a  number 
of  different  materials  that  may  be  applied  to  the  soil  to 
supply  the  plant  food  needed.  Such  materials  are  called 
fertilizers.  Barnyard  manure  is  the  most  common  fer- 
tilizer used.     Materials  that  are   purchased  for  fertilizer, 


Figure  12.— Pasturing.     Live  stock  can  be  kept  ordinarily  more  cneaply  on  past 
ures  than  in  any  other  way.     Pasturing  also  improves  the  soil. 

such  as  Hme,  ground  phosphate  rock,  sodium  nitrate,  waste 
from  slaughter  houses,  etc.,  are  called  commercial  ferti- 
lizers, because  they  are  bought  and  sold. 

Plant  Food.— Plants,  like  animals,  have  to  be  fed,  and, 
like  animals,  they  need  more  than  one  kind  of  food.  Ther^ 
IS  a  number  of  different  elements  which  are  needed  for  the 
complete  growth  of  plants.  The  soil,  air,  and  water  in  the 
soil  furnish  most  of  the  elements  needed  in  such  great 
abundance  that  there  is  no  danger  of  the  supply's  ever 
becoming  exhausted.  There  are  only  four  elements  that 
are  likely  to  be  lacking  even  in  soils  that  have  been  cropped 


32  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

for  many  centuries.     So  it  is  necessary  to  learn  only  about 
the  ones  that  are  most  likely  to  be  required. 

Names. — The  four  elements  that  are  most  likely  to 
become  limited  in  the  soil  are  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  potas- 
sium and  calcium.  The  names  of  these  elements  are  not 
hard  to  pronounce  or  learn.  Every  boy  and  girl  should 
know  these  names,  what  part  each  element  plays  in  the 
growth  of  plants,   and  a  practical  means  of  maintaining 


Figure  13. — A  crop  ol  alfalfa,  one  of  the  best  farm  iertilizers, 

a  supply  of  them  in  the  soil.  Boys  and  girls  who  have 
studied  physiology  and  have  learned  how  to  pronounce 
and  to  know  the  meaning  of  such  words  as  occipital,  parietal, 
cerebellum,  etc.,  or  who  have  learned  to  pronounce  and 
know  the  meaning  of  such  words  as  subtrahend  and  min- 
uend in  arithmetic  will  not  have  difficulty  in  learning  to  use 
the  words,  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  potassium  and  calcium. 

Nitrogen  is  needed  by  all  plants.  Nearly  80%  of  the 
air  is  nitrogen,  and  this  is  the  chief  source  of  nitrogen  for 
the  soil.  The  problem  of  the  farmer  is  to  get  the  nitrogen 
out  of  the  air  and  into  the  soil.     It  is  present  in  the  soil 


FERTILIZERS 


3S 


chiefly  in  combination  with  other  elements  in  the  form  of 
vegetable  matter.  As  soon  as  the  vegetable  matter  in  the 
soil  decomposes  (rots),  the  nitrogen  is  made  soluble  or  goes 
off  into  the  air  as  gas,  so  that  it  is  very  easily  lost.  A  soil 
that  is  lacking  in  vegetable  matter  is  likely  to  be  lacking 
in  nitrogen.  A  good  supply  of  nitrogen  in  the  soil  stim- 
ulates the  growth  of  plants.  A  dark  green  color  of  the 
growing  plants  generally  indicates  plenty  of  nitrogen. 
When  the  foliage  turns  yellow  before  it  is  ripe,  there  is 
usually  a  scarcity  of  nitrogen.  Nitrogen  is  an  essential 
element  of  protein.  The  amount  in  normal  soils  varies  from 
2,000  lbs.  to  10,000  lbs.  in  the  upper  seven  inches. 

Phosphorus  is  needed  by  all  plants.  It  is  needed  es- 
pecially in  crops  like  grain  and  corn  that  mature  seeds. 
The  presence  of  plenty  of  phosphorus  in  the  soil  aids  plants 
in  the  production  of  seed.  The  kernels  of  wheat  or  rye 
or  corn  are  likely  to  be  plumper  and  heavier  where  there  is 
a  good  supply  of  phosphorus.  A  lack  of  sufficient  phos- 
phorus in  the  soil  results  in  a  smaller  yield  of  grain,  and  the 
grain  produced  is  not  so  good  in  quality.  Selling  seeds, 
such  as  wheat,  barley,  rye,  or  corn  from  the  farm  removes 
from  the  farm  comparatively  large  amounts  of  phosphorus. 
The  amount  of  phosphorus  in  normal  soils  varies  from  1,000 
lbs.  to  2,000  lbs.  per  acre.  When  one  considers  the  compar- 
atively small  amount  of  this  element  in  the  soil,  and  the 
amounts  removed  by  ordinary  crops,  as  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing table,  one  is  impressed  with  the  need  of  adding  to 
the  supply  in  the  soil  before  it  gets  too  low. 

Approximate  Amount  of  Fertility  Removed  by  Crops. 


Crop 

Amount 
bushels 

Nitrogen 
pounds 

Phosphorus 
pounds 

Potassium 
pounds 

Wheat 

20 

22 

4.1 

5.8 

Oats 

40 

28 

4.1 

6.6 

Barley. 

30 

27 

5.2 

6.1 

Com 

50 

31 

6.1 

9.6 

Potatoes 

150 

32 

6.3 

42.0 

Clover  hay .... 

2  tons 

80 

8.5 

56. 

3— 


34  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Potassium  is  needed  by  all  crops.  It  is  especially 
needed  in  hay  crops,  in  the  straw  of  grain  crops,  and  in  po- 
tato and  root  crops.  It  is  potassium  that  gives  stiffness 
to  the  straw  of  grain  crops  and  enables  it  to  stand  up  and 
mature  a  crop.  Where  there  is  a  scarcity  of  potassium  the 
straw  of  grain  crops  is  likely  to  be  weak.  Potassium  is 
removed  from  the  farm  rapidly  by  such  crops  as 
hay,  potatoes  and  sugar  beets.  The  amount  of  potassium 
in  ordinary  soils  varies  from  20,000  to  50,000  lbs.  per  acre. 

Calcium  is  used  in  a  very  limited  extent  by  plants,  as 
plant  food,  except  by  legumes,  such  as  alfalfa,  clover,  peas, 
etc.  Its  mo^t  important  use  in  the  soil  is  to  overcome 
acidity  or  sourness.  When  a  soil  is  sour,  bacteria  neces- 
sary for  the  liberation  of  plant  food  are  likely  to  be  lack- 
ing, especially  those  bacteria  associated  with  the  accumu- 
lation of  nitrogen  in  the  soils  and  its  conversion  into  forms 
available  for  plants.  A  sour  soil  is  often  indicated  by  the 
growth  of  such  weeds  as  sorrel  and  horsetail  fern,  or  by 
its  failure  to  produce  good  crops  of  legumes.  It  is  also 
easily  detected  by  several  simple  tests.  Many  soils  have 
an  abundance  of  lime,  while  others  are  seriously  in  need  of 
it.  The  amount  of  calcium  in  normal  soils  varies  from  a 
few  hundred  pounds  to  a  great  many  tons  per  acre. 
Questions: 

1.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  term  fertihzer?  By  com- 
mercial fertilizers? 

2.  Name  the  four  elements  that  are  likely  to  be  lacking  in  cul- 
tivated soils,  and  tell  at  least  one  special  purpose  for  which  each  is 
needed. 

Arithmetic: 

1.  If  a  soil  contains  1,000  lbs.  of  phosphorus  per  acre,  how  many 
100-bu.  crops  of  corn  can  it  produce,  without  the  addition  of  more 
phosphorus?     If  1  bu.  of  corn  removes  12-100  lbs.  of  phosphorus? 

2.  If  nitrogen  is  worth  18c.  per  lb.  as  a  fertilizer,  what  is  the 
value  of  2  tons  of  clover  hay  to  plow  under?  If  it  contains  2  lbs.  of 
nitrogen  per  100  lbs.? 

3.  If  a  soil  contains  50,000  lbs.  of  potassium  per  acre,  how  rnany 
100-bu.  crops  of  corn  can  it  produce  without  exhausting  the  potassium, 
if  1  bu.  of  corn  removes  2-10  lbs.  of  potassium? 

FERTILIZERS  AND  THEIR  USE 

Costs. — We  have  learned  that  there  are  four  elements 
needed    by    plants,    nitrogen,    phosphorus,    potassium   and 


FERTILIZERS  35 

calcium,  the  supply  of  which  is  likely  to  become  depleted 
in  ordinary  soils  unless  care  is  taken  to  maintain  them.  In 
the  last  lesson  we  learned  that  a  20-bushel  yield  of  wheat 
removed  22  lbs.  of  nitrogen,  4.1  lbs.  of  phosphorus  and  5.8 
lbs.  of  potassium.  Nitrogen  costs  about  18  cents  per  pound, 
phosphorus  about  6  cents  per  pound  and  potassium  about 
6  cents  per  pound,  when  purchased  in  the  form  of  com- 
mercial fertilizers.  To  replace  the  elements  removed  by 
20  bushels  of  wheat  would  cost  at  these  prices  about  $4.55 
or  22^  cents  per  bushel  of  wheat.  If  it  were  necessary 
to  purchase  all  these  elements  used,  it  would  make  a 
very  heavy  tax  on  wheat  raising.  . 

Nitrogen  is  present  in  the  air  in  very  large  quantities. 
The  farmer  has  a  way  at  his  command  by  which  he  can 
gather  this  nitrogen  and  add  it  to  the  soil  at  practically 
no  cost.  This  is  done  by  growing  legumes,  such  as  clover, 
alfalfa,  etc.  (See  Chapter  VI )  A  good  rotation  of  crops 
(See  Chapter  XXIII)  in  which  clover  or  some  other  legume 
crop  is  included  one  or  more  times  in  from  three  to  seven 
years  wiU  provide  for  the  maintenance  of  a  sufficient  supply 
of  nitrogen.  Barnyard  manure  also  contains  liberal  amounts 
of  nitrogen  and  its  application  to  the  soil  every  few  years 
is  very  helpful  in  maintaining  a  supply  of  nitrogen.  It  is 
not  necessary,  therefore,  under  ordinary  farm  conditions, 
to  purchase  nitrogen.  It  is  very  important  in  connection 
with  the  maintenance  of  nitrogen  that  a  liberal  supply  of 
vegetable  matter  be  maintained.  When  it  becomes  neces- 
sary to  purchase  nitrogen  for  a  fertilizer,  it  may  be  secured 
in  the  form  of  sodium  nitrate,  a  product  taken  from  mines, 
ammonium  sulphate,  a  by-product  in  the  manufacture  of 
gas,  dried  blood  and  other  by-products  from  large  packing 
plants  or  slaughter  houses. 

Phosphorus. — It  will  be  noted  in  the  last  lesson  that 
phosphorus  is  present  in  the  soil  in  comparatively  small 
quantities.  It  is  removed  from  the  farm  when  either 
grain  or  live  stock  is  sold.  The  addition  of  manure  adds 
to  the  supply,  especially  if  mill  feed  is  purchased.  Often 
the  elements  of  fertility  may  be  more  economically  pur- 
chased in  the  form  of  feed  to  be  fed  to  live  stock  and  the 
manure  applied  to  the  soil  than  to  purchase  them  in  the 


36  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE. 

form  of  commercial  fertilizers.  A  supply  of  vegetable  mat- 
ter in  the  soil  is  important  in  aiding  the  liberation  of 
phosphorus.  Even  after  all  precautions  to  conserve  phos- 
phorus, there  is  almost  certain  to  come  a  time  when  the 
supply  of  available  phosphorus  in  the  soil  will  be  so  small 
as  to  seriously  limit  the  yield  of  crops.  It  will  no  doubt 
have  to  be  furnished  to  the  soil  in  the  form  of  commercial 
fertilizers.  The  more  important  sources  of  phosphorus  fer- 
tihzers  are  ground  bones,  either  steamed  or  raw  from  slaugh- 
ter houses,  and  mineral  phosphate  mined  in  the  United 
States.  This  is  mostly  used  in  a  form  called  acid  phosphate. 
In  this  form  the  phosphorus  is  easily  available  for  plants. 
Raw,  finely  ground  phosphate  rock  is  now  used  in  large 


Figure  14. — Cattle  and  clover  maintain  soil  fertility. 

quantities.  It  is  cheaper  and,  where  a  good  supply  of  veg- 
etable matter  is  maintained,  the  decomposition  of  the 
vegetable  matter  in  the  soil  renders  the  phosphorus  in  the 
raw  rock  soluble,  so  that  plants  can  use  it.  The  finer  the 
raw  phosphorus  rock  is  ground  the  more  easily  is  the  phos- 
phorus made  soluble. 

Potassium  is  much  more  abundant  in  most  soils  than 
phosphorus  or  nitrogen.  Most  of  the  potassium  used  by 
plants  is  in  the  stems  or  straw.  Most  of  the  straw  and  hay 
produced  on  farms  is  used  as  feed  or  bedding  for  live  stock 
and  returned  to  the  soil  in  the  form  of  manure.  For  these 
reasons  there  are  very  few  soils  that  are  deficient  in  potas- 
sium. It  is  seldom  necessary  to  use  fertilizers  containing 
potassium  other  than  barnyard  manure  especially  if  a  prac- 
tical rotation  of  crops  is  followed.     Occasionally  it  pays  to 


FERTILIZERS.  37 

apply  potassium  for  hay  crops,  root  crops  and  potatoes,  as 
these  crops  use  very  large  amounts  of  this  element.  The 
most  common  kinds  of  potassium  fertilizers  sold  commer- 
cially are  some  of  the  mineral  potassium  salts,  such  as  kainit, 
muriate  of  potash,  which  is  a  product  refined  from  the  mineral 
potassium  salts;  and  wood  ashes. 

Calcium  is  generally  quite  abundant,  but  some  soils  have 
very  little  in  the  form  of  carbonate,  usually  called  Hme. 
The  lack  of  sufficient  lime  is  usually  suspected,  if  clover  and 
alfalfa  fail  to  grow  well.  Where  there  is  insufficient  lime 
the  soil  is  said  to  be  sour  or  acid.  This  condition  can  not 
be  corrected  by  applying  manure.  Lime  in  some  form  must 
be  supplied.  Quicklime  (the  form  used  for  plastering), 
finely  ground  Umestone,  slaked  lime,  or  marl  will  accomplish 
the  desired  result;  that  is,  neutralize  the  acid  in  the  soil. 

Testing  for  Acidity 

The  most  reliable  test  is  the  field  plot  test.  If  a  shortage  of  lime 
is  suspected,  aKalfa  may  be  sown  in  a  field.  Divide  it  into  three  plots, 
apply  no  hme  on  one  plot,  1  ton  of  lime  per  acre  to  another  plot,  and 
2  tons  of  lime  per  acre  on  a  third.  If  the  alfalfa  does  well  on  all  three 
plots,  no  lime  is  needed.  If  it  does  poorly  on  the  no-lime  plot,  but 
well  on  the  other  two,  1  ton  of  lime  per  acre  is  sufficient.  If  the  crop 
is  better  on  the  plot  receiving  the  heavier  treatment,  the  soil  is  quite 
sour  and  needs  the  heavy  application  of  Hme.  Men  familiar  with 
soils  and  soil  needs  may  test  soil  quite  a«;urately  in  the  field  or  labora- 
tory and  tell  whether  or  not  lime  is  needed.  Blue  litmus  paper,  if 
placed  in  moist  soil,  will  turn  pink  if  acid  is  present.  Some  test,  such 
as  the  litmus  paper  test  and  muriatic  acid  test,  are  recommended,  even 
for  those  not  experienced  in  soil  testing.  They  give  at  best  only  an 
indication  and  should  be  followed  by  field  tests  before  much  expense 
is  incurred  in  buying  lime  or  in  sowmg  alfalfa  without  applying  lime. 

Acid  prevents  the  growth  of  nitrogen-forming  bacteria. 

When  in  doubt  as  to  whether  or  not  your  soil  needs  lime  it  is  best 
to  ask  your  county  agent  to  test  it  or  send  a  one-pound  sample  to  your 
Experiment  Station.     Such  tests  are  made  free  of  charge. 

Complete  Fertilizers. — Many  companies  prepare  fertil- 
izers ready  for  use.  These  fertilizers  usually  contain  cal- 
cium, nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and  potassium,  also  a  consider- 
able amount  of  other  material  called  filler  to  make  up  the 
bulk  and  weight.  Such  fertilizers  are  called  complete  fertil- 
izers. It  is  seldom  economical  to  use  them,  because  it  is 
seldom  necessary  to  apply  them  all,  as  the  elements  not 
needed,  if  appHed,  are  wasted.     The  cheapest  and  most 


38  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE. 

practical  way  of  adding  nitrogen  to  the  soil  is  to  grow"'clover 
and  other  legume  crops.  Most  soils,  in  fact  nearly  all  soils, 
have  enough  potassium.  Phosphorus  is  the  element  most 
likely  to  be  needed  and  the  cheapest  way  to  supply  that  is 
to  buy  a  fertilizer  containing  only  phosphorus. 

Animal  Manure. — Except  in  the  case  of  soils  that  may 
be  seriously  impoverished  of  some  particular  element  of  plant 
food,  it  has  been  found  that  the  total  crop  products  from 
fields  that  have  received  animal  manure  exceed  those  from 
land  treated  with  commercial  fertilizers  or  which  were  not 
manured.     Animal  manure  is  preferable  because 

(1)  it  is  produced  at  a  minimum  of  expense, 

(2)  it  adds  immediately  available  plant  food  to  the  soil, 

(3)  it  provides  humus  and  acid  solvents  that  assist  soil 
decay, 

(4)  it  produces  effects  for  years  after  application. 

Questions: 

1.  Describe  the  most  practical  means  of  maintaining  a  supply  of 
nitrogen  in  a  soil  for  ordinary  farming. 

2.  Which  of  the  four  elements  named  in  this  lesson  is  most 
likely  to  become  exhausted?     How  may  it  be  replenished? 

3.  Is  much  potash  removed  from  soil  with  ordinary  crops?     Why? 

4.  What  is  a  complete  fertilizer?     Is  it  usually  economical? 

5.  What  are  the  advantages  of  animal  manures? 
Arithmetic:  • 

1.  If  50  bus.  of  corn  remove  31  lbs.  of  nitrogen,  6.1  lbs.  of  phos- 
phorus, and  9.6  lbs.  of  potassium,  how  much  would  it  cost  to  replace 
these  elements  at  18c.  per  lb.  for  nitrogen,  and  6c.  per  lb.  for  potas- 
sium and  phosphorus? 

2.  If  an  acre  of  normal  soil  contains  4,000  lbs.  of  nitrogen,  2,000 
lbs.  of  phosphorus  and  35,000  lbs.  of  potassium,  what  is  the  total 
value  of  these  elements  per  acre  at  prices  used  in  Example  1? 

3.  If  acid   phosphate   contains   6%   phosphorus   and   a   50-bu. 
crop  removes  6.1  lbs.  of  phosphorus,  how  many  pounds  of  acid  phos- 
phate would  one  have  to  apply  to  supply  the  needs  of  the  crop? 
Exercises: 

1.  Find  some  field  or  fields  in  the  neighborhood  to  which  some 
kind  or  kinds  of  fertilizers  have  been  applied.  Make  note  of  the  kind 
of  fertilizer  used  and,  if  possible,  find  a  field  part  of  which  was  fertil- 
ized and  part  unfertilized.  Note  the  growth  of  the  crop  on  the  fer- 
tilized and  also  on  the  unfertilized  part.  Compare  the  color  and 
height  of  plants,  also  the  thickness  of  growth  and,  if  possible,  find  out 
the  yields  on  both  parts  of  the  field. 

2.  Ascertain  the  contents  of  the  commercial  fertilizers  offered 
in  your  market  and  compare  their  values  with  prices  asked    for  them. 


CHAPTER  IV 
GRAIN  CROPS 

PLANT  STRUCTURE 

Parts  of  Plant. — All  the  more  important  plants,  in  which 
the  farmer  is  chiefly  interested,  have  four  distinct  parts, 
roots,  stems,  leaves,  and  flowers.  Plants,  like  animals, 
vary  greatly.  This  fact  is  true  of  plants  in  any  one  variety, 
such  as  wheat  plants  or  pansy  plants.  This  habit  of  varia- 
tion has  made  possible  the  development  of  the  great  variety 
of  plants  that  are  grown  to.  supply  the  many  different  needs 
of  man.  In  some  plants  one  part  has  been  developed  for 
use,  in  other  plants  other  parts.  For  example,  in  the 
turnips  the  root  is  eaten;  in  asparagus  the  stems;  in  lettuce 
the  leaves;  and  in  wheat  the  seeds. 

Roots. — There  are  two  kinds  of  roots,  fibrous  roots  and 
tap  roots  Roots  grow  in  the  soil  and  take  up  moisture 
and  plant  food.  The  moisture  in  the  soil  and  the  plant 
food  with  it  pass  through  the  thin  walls  of  the  roots  and 
very  fine  root  hairs,  or  branch  roots.  Roots  also  hold  the 
plant  in  place  and  tend  to  keep  it  erect. 

Stems. — These  may  grow  erect  like  corn  or  wheat  or  may 
trail  along  the  ground  like  squash  or  cucumber  vines,  or 
they  may  climb  up  some  other  object,  like  peas  or  beans. 
The  function  or  work  of  the  stem  is  to  bear  the  leaves  and 
blossoms  and  to  provide  a  means  for  the  plant  food  to  go, 
to  and  from  the  leaves.  Plant  food  and  moisture  circulate 
in  the  plant  somewhat  similar  to  the  circulation  of  blood 
in  the  body  of  an  animal.  In  some  cases,  like  potatoes, 
for  example,  some  of  the  stems  grow  under  ground;  in  fact, 
the  potato  (tuber)  that  we  eat  is  simply  an  enlarged  stem. 
This  fact  is  indicated  by  the  eyes  on  the  potato,  which  are 
the  buds  from  which  branches  may  grow. 

Leaves  have  been  called  the  stomach  of  the  plant, 
because  it  is  in  the  leaves  that  the  plant  food  from  the  soil 
and  from  the  air  are  brought  together  and  changed  into 
the  compounds  which  make  up  the  plant.     From  300  to 


40  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

500  lbs.  of  moisture  must  pass  through  a  plant  to  produce 
one  pound  of  dry  matter  in  the  plant.  This  water  must 
all  be  given  off  into  the  air  by  the  leaves,  hence  the  need 
of  so  many  leaves.  A  tree,  or  a  plant,  usually  has  a  very 
large  leaf  area  exposed.  It  is  interesting  to  estimate  this 
leaf  area  on  various  plants,,  by  counting  the  leaves  on  a 
part  of  the  plant,  measuring  the  size  of  an  average  leaf 
and  then  computing  the  total,  remembering  that  there  are 
two  sides  to  each  leaf.  Each  leaf  has  many  little  openings 
or  pores  on  its  under  surface  through  which  air  is  taken 
into  the  leaf  and  moisture  and  oxygen  given  off. 

Flowers  are  borne  on  the  stems  of  plants.  Their  func- 
tion is  to  start  and  develop  the  seed  which  enables  the 
plant  to  reproduce  itself.  In  fact,  the  production  of  seed 
seems  to  be  the  function  of  the  whole  plant,  but  it  is  the 
blossom  that  starts  the  seed  and  as  soon  as  the  seed  is 
started  the  blossom  falls. 

Questions: 

1.  Name  the  four  principal  parts  of  a  plant. 

2.  Name  at  least  two  plants  in  which  the  edible  part  comes 
from  the  roots.      From  the  stem?     From  the  leaves?     From  the  seed? 

3.  Tell  the  principal  uses  to  plants  of  roots  and  leaves. 
Arithmetic: 

1.  If  400  lbs.  of  water  are  given  off  (transpired)  by  clover  plants 
to  produce  1  lb.  of  dry  matter,  how  many  pounds  will  be  transpired 
from  an  acre  of  clover  yielding  3  tons  of  hay  containing  85%  of  dry 
matter? 

2.  Count  the  leaves  on  an  average  sized  hill  of  potatoes  Meas- 
ure an  average  sized  leaf  and  find  the  total  leaf  surface  exposed  per 
hill.  Per  acre.  If  a  potato  plant  is  not  available,  use  a  geranium 
plant  instead. 

GOOD  SEED 

Importance. — We  must  have  good  kernels  of  grain  from 
which  to  raise  a  good  crop,  just  as  we  must  have  good 
cows  from  which  to  raise  good  calves.  One  of  the 
laws  of  Nature  which  we  must  consider  in  raising  plants 
and  animals  is  that  ''Like  produces  like."  If  we  want  to 
raise  large  horses  we  must  have  large  horses  from  which 
to  raise  them.  If  we  want  to  raise  dairy  cows  we  must 
keep  dairy  cows  or  cows  which  have  the  ability  to  produce 
large  amounts  of  milk.  Likewise,  if  we  wish  to  produce 
good  plants,  we  must  sow  good  seed.     There  are  small, 


GRAIN  CROPS  41 

large,  shrunken  and  plump  grains.  It  is  important  to 
know  which  we  should  plant. 

Test  of  Good  Seed. — Good  seed  of  any  kind  of  grain 
must  have  at  least  three  qualities: 

(1)  It  must  be  pure,  that  is,  free  from  weed  and  other 
grain  seed. 

(2)  It  must  be  well  matured,  plump  and  heavy. 

(3)  It  must  germinate  well  so  as  to  produce  strong 
plants. 

You  will  notice  by  examining  a  small  sample  of  grain 
(place  a  small  sample  on  a  piece  of  white  paper)  that  there 
is  a  great  difference  in  the  size,  character  and  shape  of  the 
kernels.  (Separate  the  sample  into  good  and  poor  lots.) 
Would  you  care  to  plant  the  poor  seed?  You  might  be 
interested  to  plant  ten  of  the  very  best,  large,  heavy  seeds 
and  ten  of  the  poorest,  small,  light  seeds  in  a  box  of  pure 
sand.  Moisten  the  sand  and  keep  the  box  in  a  warm  room. 
See  which  seeds  produce  the  larger,  stronger  plants. 

Parts  of  a  Seed. — A  seed  is  made  up  of  three  parts: 

(1)  A  small  plantlet  or  germ,  the  embryo,  inside  oi 
each  kernel  which  will,  when  the  seed  is  placed  under 
favorable  conditions  as  to  heat,  air  and  moisture,  grow 
and  produce  a  plant; 

(2)  The  food  material  stored  about  the  embryo,  to  feed 
it  until  it  has  developed  a  root  system  so  as  to  be  able  to 
get  food  from  the  soil;  and 

(3)  The    seed     coat    on    the    outside    for    protection. 
It  is  evident  that  a  large,  plump  kernel  or  seed  will  have 

a  stronger,  larger  germ  than  will  a  small  or  shrunken  seed, 
and  will  also  have  more  food  for  the  little  plantlet,  so  the 
plantlet  will  get  a  better  start  before  it  must  obtain  its  food 
from  the  soil. 

Select  Seed  from  Best  Plants. — Another  reason  for 
selecting  the  large,  plump  seeds  is  because  it  is  reasonable 
to  expect  that  they  grew  on  good,  strong,  healthy  plants. 
There  are  a  great  many  unfavorable  conditions  with  which 
plants  have  to  contend,  such  as  diseases  like  smut,  rust 
and  blight;  unfavorable  weather  conditions,  as  cold  or  wet 
or  drought  or  heat;  also  poor  soil  conditions.  It  is  evident 
that  some  plants  are  better  able  to  withstand  such  conditions 


42 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


than  others.  Those  that  do  withstand  such  unfavorable 
conditions  and  are  best  adapted  to  the  soil  and  climate 
will  be  likely  to  do  better  and  produce  better  and  more 

perfect  seed  than  will 
other  plants.  The  heavi- 
est and  plumpest  seeds 
are  selected  when  seeds 
from  the  best  and  most 
vigorous  plants  are  se- 
cured. Hence,  when  a 
farmer  selects  the  heavy, 
plump  seeds  raised  on  his 
own  farm,  he  not  only 
te^a^.^    sets  good,    strong  seed. 

Figure  15 —Diagram  of  a  Fanning  Mill,  show-  but   Seed   adapted    tO    his 

ing  a  good   method   of   grading   seed  grain,  cnil    unci    plima+A 

The  blast  blows  the  lighter  kernels  over  the  SOU    aUQ   CUmatO. 
end   of   screen    No.    3,    in   with   the   market  HeaVV  Seed   grOWU  m 

grain.     The  heavy  kernels  fall  on  this  screen.         _^  ,  ^  T      c    i\ 

The  smaller  of  these  go  through  into  market  SOmC    OtUCr    part    01    tUe 

grain,  leaving  only  the  heavy  large  kernels  cOUlltrV  is  USUallv  heaVV 
to  go  into  the  seed  grain.  -^      .  •'  '^ 

because  it  grew  under 
favorable  conditions  rather  than  because  it  came  from  es- 
pecially strong  plants.  The  heaviest  home-grown  seed  is  often 
better  to  sow  than  still  heavier  seed  from  other  localities. 
Questions: 

1.  What  law  of  Nature  must  be  considered  in  raising  plants 
and  animals? 

2.  What  are  the  throo  quahties  that  all  good  seed  must  possess? 

3.  What  two  kinds  of  seed  can  you  usually  find,  if  you  examine 
a  good,  pure  sample  of  grain? 

4.  What  are  the  three  parts  of  a  seed,  and  the  purpose  of  each? 

5.  Why  is  heavy,  plump  seed  better  than  small  or  shrunken? 
Arithmetic: 

1.  Land  at  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station,  seeded  with 
heavy,  plump  seed  oats,  yielded  9.5  bus.  per  acre  more  than  similar 
land  seeded  to  light  weight  oats.  What  was  the  additional  income 
per  acre  from  heavy  weight  seed  if  oats  are  worth  38c.  per  bushel? 

2.  If  2  bus.  of  heavy  seed  oats  (sown  on  one  acre)  give  an 
increased  yield  of  9.5  bus.  what  would  be  the  increased  yield  from  one 
bushel  of  heavy  weight  seed  oats? 

3.  If  one  bushel  of  heavy  weight  seed  oats  gives  a  yield  of  4.5 
bus.  more  than  is  secured  from  a  bushel  of  light  seed,  what  is  the 
value  of  one  bushel  of  heavy  weight  seed  when  oats  are  worth  38c. 
per  bushel? 

Note:  If  the  light  weight  seed  is  worth  38c.  per  bushel,  the  heavy 
graded  seed  will  be  worth  38c.  plus  4.5  times  38c. 


ORAIN  CROPS  43 

SELECTION  OF  GOOD  SEED 

Pure  Seed. — It  is  well  worth  while  for  farmers  to  raise 
only  pure  varieties  of  grain,  or  grain  that  contains  no  other 
kind  or  variety  of  seed.  Seed  of  Blue  Stem  wheat  should 
be  free  from  oats,  rye,  and  barley  as  well  as  from  other 
kinds  of  wheat.  Pure  seed  grain  may  be  secured  by  pur- 
chasing a  small  amount  of  pure  seed  and  using  care  in 
growing  it  so  that  it  will  not  become  mixed ;  or,  if  one  prefers 
to  start  with  the  seed  on  the  farm,  one  may  go  through  a 
small  patch  of  grain  when  it  is  headed  out  in  the  field  and 
pick  out  and  destroy  the  other  kinds  of  grain,  thus  getting 
a  small  patch  pure,  from  which  a  start  in  pure  seed  may 
be  made. 

As  a  rule  the  very  best  seed  that  one  can  get  for  the 
main  crop  is  from  grain  that  has  been  grown  on  the  farm 
for  several  years  and  that  has  given  good  yields.  Such 
grain,  when  graded  and  cleaned,  so  that  only  the  very  best 
is  saved  for  seed,  usually  gives  excellent  seed. 

The  two  general  principles  by  which  grain  can  be  graded, 
separated  or  cleaned  of  weed  seeds,  by  the  use  of  the  fanning 
mill,  are  by  size  and  shape  of  kernels  or  by  weight. 

To  Remove  Weed  Seeds.^ — Most  weed  seeds  may  be 
removed  from  grain  by  running  the  grain  through  a  fanning 
mill.  The  large  weed  seeds  are  separated  from  the  grain  by 
dropping  the  grain  through  a  sieve  that  is  too  fine  to  let 
the  weed  seeds  through.  The  small  weed  seeds  are  taken 
out  by  running  the  grain  over  a  sieve  that  is  too  fine  to  let 
the  grain  through  but  coarse  enough  to  let  the  small  weed 
seeds  through.  The  weed  seeds  that  are  lighter  than  the 
grain  may  be  blown  out.  Sometimes  the  fight  grains,  like 
oats,  may  be  separated  from  heavy  weed  seeds  by  blowing 
the  grain  out  of  the  weed  seeds. 

There  are  some  weed  seeds,  like  cockle  and  wild  vetch, 
which  are  about  the  same  size  and  weight  as  wheat,  that 
are  very  hard  to  separate  from  that  grain,  while  such 
weed  seeds  as  wild  oats  are  very  hard  to  separate  from 
oats  and  barley,  as  the  seeds  are  quite  similar  in  character. 
When  such  weed  seeds  are  present  in  grain  and  can  not 
be  removed  with  a  fanning  mill,  a  small  amount  of  seed 
free  from  such  weed  seeds  may  be  secured  by  hand  picking 


44  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

or  by  pulling  the  weed  plants  from  a  small  plat  of  grow- 
ing grain,  thereby  getting  a  start  in  clean  seed. 

Grading  Seed  Grain. — Many  persons  are  satisfied  when 
they  get  pure  and  clean  seed  grain;  but,  if  one  wishes  to 
get  the  best  results  and  maintain  or  improve  grain  from  year 
to  year,  it  is  necessary  to  grade  out  and  use  for  seed  only 
the  very  best  individual  seeds  in  the  whole  amount  grown 
on  the  farm.  This  may  be  cheaply  done  by  grading  the 
grain  as  shown  on  page  42.  In  this  way  the  heavy  plump, 
kernels  are  separated  from  the  smaller,  lighter  ones.  The 
former  kernels  should  be  used  for  seed  and  the  latter  sold 
or  used  for  feed. 

Germination. — It  is  as  important  that  seed  grain  ger- 
minates (starts  to  grow)  well  as  that  seed  corn  germinates 

well.  It  is  a  very  sim- 
ple matter  to  test  seed 
grain  for  germination, 
and  this  should  always 
be  done  before  it  is 
planted.  A  good  ger- 
minator  is  made  as  fol- 
lows: Partly  fill  a  plate 

Figure  16.— A  simple  germinator  for  testing  seed  with   Sawdust    Or    Saud, 

grain.     The  lower  plate  is  partly   filled   with  f^ri^rav  vu\fh   f\   o\nih     and 

sand,  the  grain  placed  between  the  cloths  on  COVer  WlIU  a  ClOLU,  anu 

top  of  the  sand  and  all  covered  by  an  inverted  on  thlS  SCatter  One  hUU- 

plate.      If   kept   moist   and   in   a   warm   room,  ,        ■,             ■,         r^^,,^„  T^ri+U 

good  seed  will  germinate  in  from  5  to  7  days,  dred   SeedS.    C^OVer  With 

another  cloth,  moisten 
and  cover  all  with  an  inverted  plate.  See  Figure  16.  An- 
other simple  germinator  for  grain  and  grass  seed  is  made 
out  of  blotting  paper.  Place  the  seeds  to  germinate  between 
two  squares  of  the  blotting  paper.  Good  seed  in  such  a 
germinator,  kept  moist  and  in  a  warm  room,  as  a  living  room 
or  school  house,  for  from  five  to  seven  days,  will  sprout. 
The  number  out  of  the  one  hundred  that  start  to  grow  vig- 
orously in  that  length  of  time  will  represent  the  per  cent 
of  the  seed  that  will  be  likely  to  grow  in  the  field.  It  will 
pay  to  try  this  with  several  different  kinds  of  grains. 
Questions: 

1.  From  what  source  is  one  most  likely  to  get  good  Seed  gram 
for  most  of  a  planting?     Why? 

2.  In  what  ways  may  weed  seeds  be  separated  from  seed  grain? 


GRAIN  CROPS  45 

3.     By  what  method  can  one  cheaply  separate  the  large,  plump 
kernels  of  grain  from  the  small  and  light  kernels? 
Arithmetic: 

1.  Two  men  can  clean  and  grade  with  a  fanning  mill  20  bus.  of 
grain  in  an  hour.  If  the  best  30%  is  saved  for  seed,  how  many  bushels 
of  seed  will  be  secured?  How  much  will  it  cost  per  bushel  to  save 
seed  in  this  manner,  if  each  man's  time  is  worth  15c.  per  hour? 

2.  If  it  costs  5c.  per  bushel  to  grade  out  the  best  seed  and  it 
requires  two  bushels  of  seed  to  seed  an  acre,  how  much  must  the  yield 
be  increased  per  acre  to  pay  for  the  extra  cost  of  grading  the  seed,  if 
oats  are  worth  38c.  per  bushel? 

3.  If  one  seeds  50  acres  to  grain  that  germinates  but  80%,  what 
proportion  of  the  land  is  seeded  to  grain  that  will  not  grow? 

WHEAT 
PRODUCTION 

Importance. — Wheat  is  the  chief  source  of  bread  com- 
monly eaten  in  the  United  States;  in  fact,  in  the  greater  part 
of  the  world.  White  bread  is  found  on  nearly  every  table 
at  every  meal.  It  is  even  more  common  than  potatoes. 
The  United  States  produces  about  730,205,000  bushels 
of  wheat  annually.  It  is  one  of  the  large  wheat-producing; 
countries  of  the  world.  Russia  produces  about  the  same 
amount.  Each  person  in  America  uses  about  4.7  bushels 
of  wheat  per  year.  The  central  western  states,  from  Ohio 
and  Indiana  west  to  Kansas  and  the  Dakotas,  are  the 
principal  wheat-producing  states. 

The  wheat  yield  of  the  United  States  for  1914  was  878,- 
680,000  bushels  valued  at  $610,122,000.  This  was  the 
largest  crop  ever  raised  in  this  country.  The  average  per 
acre  was  raised  from  16.7  to  19  bushels. 

Place. — Wheat  has  been  grown  in  the  central  western 
states  quite  generally  for  the  first  years  of  their  development. 
In  the  older  states  it  is  usually  replaced  to  a  considerable 
extent  with  corn  and  grass,  and,  while  there  is  still  a  large 
acreage  of  wheat  grown  in  these  states,  it  is  by  no  means 
the  chief  crop.  It  has  a  very  important  place  on  a  general 
farm,  and,  when  grown  in  rotation  with  other  crops,  it  is 
a  profitable  crop.  Wheat  ordinarily  does  not  yield  as 
large  a  money  return  per  acre  as  corn  or  potatoes,  but  it 
may  yield  as  much  profit,  because  a  comparatively  small 
amount  of  labor  and  expense  are  required  to  grow  it.    Wheat 


46  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

is  one  of  the  best  grain  crops  to  use  as  a  nurse  crop  for  clover, 
timothy  and  other  grasses. 

Kinds  of  Wheat. — There  are  a  great  many  kinds  of 
wheat,  but  few  are  commonly  cultivated.  They  are  broadly 
classed  as  spring  and  winter  wheat.  Winter  wheat  is  dis- 
tinguished as  soft,  semihard,  and  hard,  and  spring  wheat 
as  soft,  hard,  and  durum,  or  macaroni.  Spring  wheat  is 
seeded  in  the  spring  and  harvested  in  late  summer.  Winter 
wheat  is  seeded  in  the  fall,  lives  over  winter,  and  is  harvested 
in  midsummer.  From  60  to  70  per  cent  of  the  wheat  grown 
in  the  United  States  is  winter  wheat,  mostly  of  the  Turkey 
variety,  the  standard  hard  winter  wheat.  Minnesota  and 
the  Dakotas  produce  about  70  per  cent  of  the  spring  wheat 


'  Figure  17. — ^A  fine  field  of  wheat. 

grown  in  this  country,  a  large  part  of  which  is  of  the  fife 
or  bluestem  type. 

Soil  for  Wheat. — Wheat  will  do  well  on  any  ordinarily 
productive  soil  in  temperate  zones  having  a  well-distributed 
annual  rainfall  of  from  20  to  40  inches.  The  chief  essentials 
are  available  plant  food  and  moisture.  It  does  best  on  land 
where  a  cultivated  crop  like  corn  or  potatoes  has  preceded 
it  or  on  land  that  has  been  summer  fallowed. 

Manures  and  Fertilizers. — The  grain  removes  from  the 
soil  considerable  amounts  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and 
potash.  In  1,000  pounds  of  wheat  there  are  19.8  pounds 
of  nitrogen,  8.6  pounds  of  phosphorus,  and  5.3  pounds  of 
potash.  As  the  straw  contains  about  15  per  cent  of  potash 
and  very  small  per  cents  of  the  other  mineral  matter,  as 


GRAIN  CROPS 


47 


straw  is  likely  to  remain  on  the  land,  and  as  most  soils  are 
better  supplied  with  potash  than  nitrogen  and  phosphoric 
acid,  these  are  the  elements  likely  to  be  depleted.  Clover, 
as  green  manure,  will  add  nitrogen,  and  stable  manure, 
vegetable  matter.  It  may,  then,  be  necessary  to  supply 
phosphorus  in  a  commercial  fertilizer.  Otherwise  com- 
mercial fertilizers  are  required  only  when  the  land  has  been 
too  long  cropped  without  rotation  or  natural  replenishment. 

Preparation  of  the  Land. — Land  is  usually  and  prefer- 
ably plowed  to  a  medium  depth  of  from  four  to  six  inches. 
For  winter  wheat  seeding  the  soil  should  be  harrowed  at 
once  very  thoroughly  to 
pack  down  the  lower  part 
of  the  f^irrow  slice  so  that 
it  will  retain  sufficient 
moisture  for  the  growing 
crop,  as  it  would  not  do 
if  left  loose  or  lumpy. 
It  is  claimed  that  early 
plowing  effects  an  appreci- 
able increase  in  the  crop, 
even  July  plowing  being 
preferable  to  August  or 
September  plowing. 

For  spring  wheat  fall 
plowing  is  preferred.    The* 

soil      may      then      be      left    Figure    is.— a    good    shock    of    wheat    well 

rough,  open  to  the  air  and  capped. 

moisture,  to  be  harrowed  or  disked,  or  both,  in  the  spring, 
to  secure  a  fine,  smooth  mulch.  Fall  plowing  also  enables 
the  vegetable  matter  to  decay  to  some  extent  before  the 
spring  crop  is  sown. 

Seed  and  Sowing. — Seed  should  be  carefully  selected 
and  graded  and  free  from  weed  seeds.  The  heaviest  and 
plumpest  kernels  may  be  obtained  by  running  the  grain 
through  a  fanning  mill.  Constant  selection  of  the  best  seed 
is  sure  to  result  in  improvement. 

Wheat  is  sown  at  the  average  rate  of  one  bushel  to  one 
and  a  half  bushels  per  acre  as  the  soil  ranges  from  light  and 
warm  to  heavy  clay.     It  may  be  sown  in  drills,  usually  six 


48  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

inches  apart,  or  broadcast.  Drilling  is  preferred,  as  it 
deposits  the  seed  at  any  even  depth,  it  is  all  covered  and 
less  is  required.  From  one  inch  to  one  and  a  half  inches  is 
proper  depth,  depending  on  the  moisture  and  texture  of 
the  soil. 

The  farther  north  winter  wheat  is  sown  the  earlier  it 
must  be  sown.  Spring  wheat  should  be  sown  early.  Wheat 
germinates  and  develops  a  good  root  system  at  cool  tempera- 
tures. The  early  plant  has  many  more  chances  of  escaping 
disease,  insects,   and  other  damage. 

Harvesting. — Wheat  should  be  harvested  promptly  when 
it  is  ripe,  on  the  one  hand  to  secure  the  largest  yield  and  on 
the  other  to  avoid  loss  from  shattering  and  storm.     In  the 


^ 

t^dKiJ 

l^j^^ 

ia 

Figure  18a. — Combined  harvester  and  thresher  drawn  by  tractor. 

central  and  eastern  part  of  the  United  States  it  is  harvested 
chiefly  with  binders.  In  the  western  part  of  the  United 
States,  where  extensive  acreages  are  grown,  much  of  the 
harvesting  is  done  with  large  combination  machines  that 
cut,  thresh,  and  sack  the  wheat  in  one  operation.  These 
machines  are  hauled  by  large  traction  engines  or  by  thirty 
or  more  horses.  They  can  be  used  only  where  there  is  no 
danger  of  rain,  so  that  the  wheat  can  stand  till  thoroughly 
ripe. 

Shocking. — Shocking  must  be  done  by  hand.  A  good 
shock  requires  that  the  heads  of  all  the  bundles  be  kept  off 
the  ground  and  protected  from  rain.  Eight  or  more  bundles 
are  firmly  set  on  the  ground,  butts  down  and  leaning  against 
one  another  so  as  to  stand  erect.     The  shock  is  then  capped 


GRAIN  CROPS 


49 


with  one  or  two  bundles  so  placed  as  to  shed  water  and 
protect  the  heads  of  grain  from  sun  and  dew.  If  well  set, 
a  shock  of  this  kind  will  not  easily  be  blown  over.  The  butt 
end  of  the  cap  sheaf  should  not  extend  beyond  the  shock. 
Stacking. — Stacking  is  quite  an  art,  and  men  pride  them- 
selves in  building  uniform,  straight  stacks  that  will  not 
blow  over  and  that  will  protect  the  heads  from  the  sun  and 
rain.  The  foundation  of  a  stack  generally  consists  of  a 
sufficient  number  of  upright  sheaves  leaning  against  one 
another  towards  the  center.  On  these  other  bundles  are 
laid  horizontally  in  tiers,  with  butts  out  and  overlapping, 


Figure  18b. — Kernels  of  wheat,  enlarged 

beginning  at  the  outside.  Each  layer,  for  several  feet, 
should  extend  a  few  inches  beyond  the  one  below  it,  to  form 
a  "bulge."  The  reverse  process  should  then  be  followed 
to  the  top.  For  several  feet  also  the  top  of  the  stack  should 
be  kept  level.  Then  the  center  should  be  built  higher  so 
as  to  afford  a  slope  to  the  edges.  Rain  will  thus  run  out- 
ward and  off. 

Threshing. — Wheat  is  often  threshed  from  the  shock. 
This  method  is  cheaper.  There  is  always  risk  of  damage 
when  grain  is  kept  exposed,  but  convenience  and  other  cir- 
cumstances often  make  it  advisable  or  necessary  to  stack. 


50  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Threshing  facilities  are  not  available  for  all  at  one  time.  A 
modern  outfit  will  thresh  1,000  to  3,000  bushels  in  a  day. 
Storing. — Wheat,  if  dry,  may  be  stored  wherever  it  can 
be  protected  from  rain  or  pests,  if  not  in  quantities  so  large 
as  to  heat.  After  being  stacked  three  or  four  wee|:s  it  is 
not  likely  to  heat.  It  loses  only  a  small  percentage  by 
shrinkage.  Most  grain  is  sold  from  the  farm  at  threshing 
time  or  soon  afterwards.  If  wheat  is  held  for  a  rise  in  price, 
it  may  be  that  the  shrinkage  and  loss  of  interest  on  money 
invested  will  more  than  offset  any  possible  gain. 

Questions: 

1.  What  can  you  say  about  the  United  States  as  a  wheat-pro- 
ducing country? 

2.  What  soil  and  preparation  is  best  for  wheat? 

3.  How  can  the  different  food  elements  be  supplied? 

4.  How  does  it  pay  to  select  good  seed? 

5.  Explain  how  to  make  a  good  shock  and  stack. 
Arithmetic: 

.1.     What  per  cent  of  its  crop  does  the  United  States  export? 

2.  If  2%  of  an  average  40-acre  crop  is  lost,  what  amount  of 
money  would  be  lost  if  wheat  is  worth  $2.00  a  bushel? 

3.  If  the  extra  expense  of  stacking  is  2c.  a  bushel,  what  would 
it  cost  to  stack  40  acres  yielding  23  bushels  an  acre? 

4.  If  a  man  sows  wheat  with  a  drill  8  feet  wide,  how  many  miles 
will  he  have  to  travel  to  sow  80  acres? 

ECONOMIC  ASPECTS 

Grades. — Market  grades  are  determined  by  the  Secretary 
of  Agriculture.  There  are  six  classes;  namely,  hard  red 
spring,  durum,  hard  red  winter,  soft  red  winter,  common 
white,  and  white  club.  These  are  divided  into  subclasses 
which  are  again  subdivided.  Weight,  moisture,  foreign 
material,  and  damaged  kernels  are  the  chief  basis  for  the 
distinctions.     The  legal  weight  of  a  bushel  is  60  poun(^s. 

Exports  and  Imports. — Russia,  Argentina,  Canada,  the 
United  States,  Roumania  and  Australia  are  the  chief  ex- 
porters of  wheat.  For  the  five  years  from  1909  to  1913  in- 
clusive Russia  exported  155,000,000  bushels  annually; 
Argentina,  93,000,000;  and  the  United  States,  84,000,000. 
The  United  Kingdom,  Germany,  Belgium,  Holland  and 
Italy  are  the  principal  importing  countries.  Conditions 
and  figures  have  naturally  been  greatly  disturbed  during 
the  world  war. 


GRAIN  CROPS  51 

Prices. — The  pric6  of  wheat  is  subject  to  many  varying 
conditions.  From  1906  to  1915  inclusive  the  price  in  this 
country  averaged  about  87  cents.  From  1908  to  1917 
inclusive  it  averaged  SI. 07.  In  July  1918,  on  account  of 
war  conditions,  the  price  of  wheat  in  Chicago  was  $2.26. 
Aside  from  quality,  distance  and,  especially,  demand  are 
price  factors.  Attempts  to  fix  the  price  by  proclamation  or 
law  are  justified  only  in  emergencies. 

Cost  of  Production. — The  cost  of  production  varies  also 
91^  account  of  local  or  accidental  conditions.  The  usual 
items  of  cost  are  rent  of  land,  price  of  seed,  labor,  fertiUzers, 
machinery,  marketing,  etc.  Recent  and  reliable  data  are 
not  available  to  determine  the  cost  with  accuracy.  In  1911 
it  was  estimated  to  be,  on  an  average,  for  the  United  States, 
$11.15.  The  cost  must  have  increased  at  least  in  propor- 
tion to  the  upward  trend  of  prices.  The  amount  of  wheat 
that  we  can  raise  on  an  acre,  therefore,  becomes  very  im- 
portant. In  the  United  States  this  has  been  said  to  be 
about  15  bushels  on  an  average.  In  France  it  is  20;  in 
Germany,  30;  and  in  the  United  Kingdom  33.  Low  yields 
are  mainly  the  result  of  the  use  of  poor  or  diseased  seed, 
poor  cultivation,  insects  or  diseases,  and  climatic  conditions. 
Practically  three  fourths  of  the  unfavorable  conditions  are 
in  the  control  of  the  farmer. 

Rotation. — ^A  three-year  rotation  in  which  wheat  is  in- 
volved is:  First  year,  corn;  second  year,  wheat;  third 
year,  clover.  This  is  a  good  rotation  for  Ught  or  run-down 
soils  or  where  the  other  crops  are  fed  to  stock  and  the  man- 
ure is  returned  to  the  soil. 

A  five-year  rotation  is:  First  year,  wheat;  second  year, 
hay;  third  year,  pasture;  fourth  year,  corn;  fifth  year,  oats. 
This  is  suitable  where  more  diversified  farming  is  practiced. 

Rotation  of  crops  is  discussed  on  pages  320,  324,  329, 
332  and  334. 

Uses. — Wheat  is  used  chiefly  as  a  human  food.  The 
gluten  in  it  makes  an  elastic  dough  which  is  preferable  for 
bread  making.  It  is  seldom,  therefore,  fed  to  stock,  except 
that  screenings  are  fed  to  fowls.  The  by-products  in  the 
manufacture  of  flour,  however,  such  as  bran,  shorts,  and 
middlings  are  commonly  fed  to  live  stock. 


52  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Diseases  and  Insects. — The  diseases  to  which  wheat  is 
most  subject  are  scab,  rust,  and  smut.  Scab  attacks  the 
glumes,  or  chaff,  and  causes  shrunken  kernels.  It  is  shown 
by  pinkish  spots.  Rust  weakens  the  straw  and  causes 
shrunken  kernels.  There  is  leaf  rust  and  stem  rust,  the 
latter  being  the  more  destructive.  The  spores  of  this  dis- 
ease live  over  winter  on  some  other  plant,  as  the  common 
barberry.  Smut  is  either  loose  or  stinking.  The  former 
attacks  and  destroys  the  glume  and  kernel;  the  latter  pro- 
duces a  smut  ball  instead  of  a  kernel.  For  treatment  for 
smut  see  page  157. 

The  insects  which  damage  wheat  are 
chiefly  the  Hessian  fly,  chinch  bugs,  grass- 
hopper, and  army  worms.  The  fly  lays 
eggs  in  the  stem,  weakening  and  breaking 
it.  The  chinch  bug  sucks  the  sap.  Grass- 
hoppers and  army  worms  devour  the 
plants. 

Great  losses  are  caused  by  these  diseases 
and  insects.  For  methods  of  prevention 
see  reference  books  and  bulletins. 

*^  Questions: 

Figure  18c.  -  1.      When  would  wheat  be  dearer,  generally 

Chinch  bug,  enlarged  speaking,  when  it  is  being  imported  or  exported? 
Why? 

2.  Can  you  determine  whether,  all  thing^  being  considered,  it 
is  more  profitable  to  raise  wheat  at  high  prices? 

3.  Why  does  wheat  do  better  after  a  cultivated  crop? 

4.  How  many  uses  of  wheat  can  you  enumerate? 

5.  What  is  the  best  way  to  combat  wheat  insects? 

Arithmetic: 

1.  What  is  the  value  of  an  acre  of  wheat  yielding  13.5  bushels 
at  85c.  a  bushel?     Of  an  acre  yielding  24  bushels  at  $2.25  a  bushel? 

2.  If  it  costs  $11.15  an  acre  to  produce  wheat,  how  much  does 
it  cost  per  bushel,  if  the  yield  is  15  bushels?     If  20?     If  25? 

3.  Three  spring-wheat  states  averaged  182,000,000  bushels  a 
year.  It  was  estimated  that  smut  caused  10%  of  damage,  If  there 
had  been  no  smut,  how  many  more  bushels  would  there  have  been? 
If  wheat  was  worth  $1.17  a  bushel,  how  much  was  lost  from  smut? 

4.  If  the  United  States  Exports  84,000,000  bushels  of  wheat  annu- 
ally, how  many  persons  would  this  amount  supply,  if  each  one  consum- 
es 4.7  bushels  a  year?     How  many  times  the  population  of  Chicago? 


GRAIN  CROPS 


OATS 


PRODUCTION 

Importance. — The  importance  of  oats  in  the  United 
States  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  about  one  bilHon  bushels 
are  grown  each  year.  The  important  oat-producing  states 
are  in  the  central  west,  with  Iowa,  Illinois,  Wisconsin, 
Minnesota  and  Nebraska  leading.  Oats  are  commonly 
grown  throughout  the  world,  and  in  the  same  countries 
that  produce  wheat.  The  United  States,  Russia,  Germany, 
France  and  Canada  are  the  principal  oat-producing  countries. 
In  1914  there  were  raised  in  the  United  States,  1,141,- 
060,000  bushels,  valued  at  $499,431,000.  The  acreage  was 
38,442,000.  Iowa  and  Illinois  lead  all  the  states  in  the  pro- 
duction of  oats.  The  average  yield  per  acre  for  the  United 
States  is  31.2  bushels.  The  annual  world  production  is 
about  4,500,000,000  bushels. 

Kinds. — There  are  winter  and  spring  oats.  Hulled,  or 
common,  oats  is  either  "side"  or  "spreading"  as  its  branches 
are  about  even  and  turn  to  one  side  or  are  of  different  lengths 

and  stand  out  at  various 
angles.  Again,  oats  may  be 
divided  according  to  the  color 
of  the  hull.  Most  of  the  oats 
grown  in  the  United  States  is 
of  the  spring  variety. 

Soil  for  Oats. — Oats,  like 
wheat,  do  well  on  a  variety  of 
soils.  That  one,  however, 
which  permits  early  seeding 
and  germination  is  likely  to 
mature  its  crop  early.  Oats 
needs  an  abundance  of  mois- 
ture. Loams  and  clay  loams, 
therefore,  furnish  a  good  bed. 
It  should  be  just  fairly  fertile. 
If  .too  rich,  m  the  presence  of 
well  capped.  plentiful  moisture  weak  stems 

and  diseases  are  likely  to  occur.     Oats  thrives  on  cool  soil 
and  in  cool  climates. 


Figure  19.     A  good  aheaf  of  oat;: 


54  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Manure  and  Fertilizers. — Manure  should  be  applied  to 
a  previous  crop  for  best  results  for  oats.  When  phosphorus 
and  potassium  are  lacking,  commercial  fertilizers  may  be 
used.  If  nitrogen  is  lacking,  a  leguminous  crop  should  be 
plowed  under;  but  commercial  fertilizer  containing  nitro- 
gen as  well  as  the  two  other  elements  mentioned  may  be 
used. 

Preparing  the  Land. — The  seed  bed  should  be  prepared 
as  early  in  the  spring  as  possible,  and  left  with  a  loose  mel- 
low surface  well  firmed  against  the  subsoil.  Disking  or 
harrowing  will  suffice  on  land  just  previously  cultivated. 
Otherwise,  fall  plowing  and  spring  disking  and  harrowing 
produce  the  best  results. 

Seed  and  Sowing. — It  is  important  to  grade  oats  before 
sowing  and  to  select  only  large  and  plump  kernels  of  uni- 
form color  and  free  from  all  impurities.  Like  wheat,  oats 
may  be  treated  with  formaldehyde  for  smut. 

Oats  should  be  sown  early  to  insure  early  maturity,  as 
rust  is  likely  to  develop  and  attack  the  plants  with  the 
advent  of  hot  weather.  Early  oats  will  mature  in  from 
90  to  100  days. 

From  two  to  three  bushels  of  seed  should  be  sown  per 
acre.  Within  limits  thin  seeding  is  likely  to  produce  the 
most  abundant  root  system.  The  seed  may  be  sown  broad- 
cast or  with  a  drill.  The  drill,  as  with  wheat,  is  likely  to 
produce  the  best  results.  The  seed  should  be  covered  more 
deeply  in  loose  than  in  compact  soil.  From  one  to  two 
inches  is  a  fair  average. 

Harvesting. — The  methods  of  cutting,  shocking,  stack- 
ing, threshing  and  storing  oats  are  hardly  different  from 
those  described  for  wheat.  If  oats  are  very  short,  they  may 
be  cut,  handled,  and  fed  like  hay.  It  is  preferable  to  stack 
oats,  which  should  not  be  threshed  for  two  or  three  weeks 
afterwards,  in  order  to  permit  ' 'sweating."  They  should 
be  threshed  then  when  dry  so  that  the  grain  will  separate 
well.  Oats  are  more  likely  to  be  stored  on  the  farm,  as 
they  are  fed  there. 
Questions: 

1     Where    do    oats  rank  in  importance  as  a  crop? 

2.  In  what  respect  do  soil  conditions  for  oats  differ  from  those 
for  wheat? 


GRAIN  CROPS  55 

3.  Why  should  oats  be  sown  as  early  as  possible? 

4.  What  is  "sweating?"     How  might  it  do  damage? 
Arithmetic: 

1.  If  oats  yield  30  bushels  per  acre,  weighing  32  lbs.  per  bushel, 
how  many  pounds  are  produced  per  acre? 

2.  If  500  lbs.  of  water  is  given  off  to  produce  1  lb.  of  dry  plant 
matter,  how  many  pounds  were  given  off  to  produce  the  grain  alone 
under  conditions  of  above  example? 

3.  When  the  acre  cost  of  producing  oats  was  $14.08,  the  land 
rental  value  was  estimated  at  S3. 78.  What  per  cent  of  the  cost  was 
that? 

ECONOMIC  ASPECTS 

Grades. — The  market  does  not  distinguish  oats  as  care- 
fully as  wheat.  There  are  numbers  1,  2,  3,  4  in  white, 
mixed,  and  red,  or  rust  proof  oats.  White  oats  usually 
bring  the  best  price.  The  legal  weight  of  oats  in  most 
states  is  32  pounds  per  bushel. 

Exports  and  Imports. — Very  little  oats  is  either  exported 
or  imported.     The  importations  are  principally  for  seed. 

Prices. — For  the  ten  years  from  1908  to  1917  the  aver- 
age December  price  of  oats  was  43.7  cents,  being  31.9  cents 
in  1912  and  66.9  cents  in  1917.  On  August  1,  1918,  the 
country  price  of  oats  was  73  cents  a  bushel.  The  average 
acre  price  for  the  United  States  from  1913  to  1918  was 
about  $15.74. 

Cost  of  Production. — It  is  estimated  that  in  1909  it 
had  cost  on  a  country-wide  average  31  cents  a  bushel  or 
$10.91  an  acre  to  produce  oats,  at  the  same  the  price  was 
40  cents  a  bushel  or  $14.08  an  acre.  The  items  considered 
in  cost  were  land  rental,  seed,  fertilizers,  labor  and  mis- 
cellaneous expense.  As  the  price  has  increased  since  this 
estimate,  it  is  altogether  likely  that  the  cost  has  kept  pace 
with  it.  When  the  crop  amounts  to  less  than  25  bushels 
to  the  acre,  it  is  probable  that  it  is  produced  at  a  loss.  In 
Germany  the  average  is  57  bushels  and  in  the  United  King- 
dom, 44.  Practical  agriculture  must,  therefore,  discover 
ways  to  increase  the  yield  in  the  United  States. 

Rotation. — In  the  corn  belt  oats  generally  follow  corn. 
They  fit  in  where  winter  wheat  is  not  grown.  Two  crops  of 
corn  may  be  raised,  followed  by  oats,  which  in  turn  are  suc- 
ceeded by  one  or  two  crops  of  grass  or  clover.  Where 
potatoes  are  raised  oats  should  follow,  succeeded  by  clover. 


56  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

If  wheat  and  oats  are  both  raised,  oats  should  follow  wheat. 

Uses. — About  two  thirds  of  all  oats  raised  is  fed  on  the 
farm,  mostly  to  horses.  Mixed  with  other  grains  they  are 
excellent  for  dairy  cattle  and  sheep.  Oats  should  be  ground 
if  fed  to  hogs  and  made  into  a  mash  for  brood  sows.  The 
feeding  value  of  oats  is,  generally  speaking,  about  the  same 
as  of  wheat.  The  straw,  however,  is  better  stock  feed  than 
wheat  straw. 

As  oatmeal  or  in  rolled  form  oats  is  a  staple  article  of 
human  diet.  It  is  also  used  in  baking  and  in  war  time  as 
a  partial  substitute  for  wheat  flour. 

The  by-products  of  milling  are  used  as  stock  feed.  Oats 
is  sometimes  cut  green  for  hay.  The  straw  is  best  for  bed- 
ding.    It  is  worth  about  $3.00  a  ton  for  manure. 

Diseases  and  Insects. — Leaf  and  stem  rust  and  loose 
smut  are  the  principal  diseases  which  attack  oats.  They 
have  effects  similar  to  those  they  have  on  wheat.  To  avoid 
rust  early  varieties  should  be  planted  on  fairly  fertile  soil, 
well-drained,  if  drainage  is  necessary.  For  smut,  seed 
should  be  treated  with  formaldehyde. 

The  hull  of  oats  serves  as  a  protection  against  insects. 
The  principal  enemies  are  army  worm,  chinch  bug,  green 
bug,  grain  aphis,  and  grasshopper.  Grain  weevils  may  at- 
tack oats  in  storage.  Tight  bins  and  fumigation  are  the 
remedies. 

Questions: 

1.  Why  might  it  be  that  oats  are  less  carefully  graded  than  wheat? 

2.  What  difference  is  there  in  the  cost  of  producing  oats  and  wheat? 
Comparing  average  cost  of  production  and  selling  price,  which  is  more 
profitable  to  raise? 

3.  Why  should  oats  be  placed  after  corn  in  a  rotation? 

4.  How  can  damage  from  disease  and  insects  be  prevented? 
Arithmetic: 

1.  When  oats  increased  in  price  from  43.7c.  to  66.9c.  a  bushel, 
what  per  cent  of  increase  was  it? 

2.  When  it  cost  $14.08  an  acre  to  produce  oats,  at  how  much 
would  oats  have  to  sell  to  make  25  bushels  an  acre  unprofitable? 

3.  If  a  bushel  of  oats  makes  3  pecks  of  breakfast  food,  how  much 
does  a  dealer  get  for  it  if  he  sells  6  pints  for  12c.? 

BARLEY 

Barley  is  not  grown  in  nearly  so  large  quantities  as  oats 
or  wheat.     Russia  is  the  chief  barley-producing  country. 


GRAIN  CROPS 


57 


The  United  States,  Austria-Hungary,  Great  Britain,  Ger- 
many, Canada  and  Spain  are  other  countries  that  produce 
barley  in  large  quantities. 

Barley  is  used  for  malting,  that  is  to  make  beer,  and  for 
feed.  It  yields  more  pounds  per  acre  than  oats,  but  is  not 
so  popular  as  a  feed  as  oats,  and  the  crop  is  a  Httle  more 
unpleasant  to  handle  than  the  other  grain  crops  on  account 
of  the  beards  or  awns.  Barley,  however,  is  a  good  feed  for 
all  classes  of  stock,  and  is  used  quite  generally  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  corn  where  corn  is  not  easily  grown.  It  is  an 
early  maturing,  heavy  growing  crop,  and  on  that  account 
is  one  of  the  best  spring-sown  grain  crops  for  cleaning  the 


Figure  20. — Some  good  grain  stacks. 

land  of  weeds.  There  are  several  different  types  of  barley: 
the  six-row  and  two-row  bearded,  the  hull-less  and  beardless. 
By  far  the  most  important  type  is  the  six-row  bearded. 

Culture. — Barley  does  best  on  rather  rich  soil.  On 
light  soils  the  straw  is  likely  to  be  so  short  that  it  is  difficult 
to  cut  with  a  binder.  Barley  is  the  most  tender  to  frost 
of  any  of  the  grain  crops.  Frost  in  the  spring  will  quite 
seriously  injure  barley,  while  wheat,  rye  and  oats  are  un- 
harmed. On  this  account  the  crop  is  usually  sown  from 
two  to  four  weeks  later  in  the  spring  than  other  grain  crops. 
From  seven  to  eight  pecks  of  seed  are  sown  per  acre. 


58  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Harvesting. — Barley  is  cut  and  shocked  in  the  same 
manner  as  wheat.  Special  care  must  be  taken  with  barley, 
if  it  is  to  be  sold  for  malting,  to  protect  it  from  the  weather, 
as  bleaching  of  the  kernels  materially  reduces  the  value 
for  that  purpose.  It  must,  therefore^  be  cut  as  soon  as  it 
is  ripe,  carefully  shocked  in  capped  shocks,  and  stacked  or 
threshed  as  soon  as  it  is  dry  enough. 

RYE 

Rye  is  the  least  important  cereal  crop  in  the  United 
States,  but  is  more  important  as  a  world  crop  than  barley. 
Russia  produces  the  largest  acreage  of  rye  of  any  country. 
Germany,  Austria-Hungary,  Norway,  and  Sweden,  and 
France  are  other  important  rye-producing  countries.  In 
these  countries  it  is  used  to  a  much  greater  extent  for  bread 
than  in  the  United  States.  It  is  used  for  bread,  for  the 
manufacture  of  alcohol,  and  as  feed  for  stock.  The  green 
crop  is  often  used  for  pasture,  and  it  will  furnish  pasture 
earlier  in  the  spring  than  most  other  crops.  Rye  is  an  ex- 
cellent crop  to  grow  in  cleaning  land  of  weeds,  because  it 
matures  early. 

Culture. — There  are  two  types  of  rye,  spring  and  winter. 
Winter  rye  is  the  more  common  in  the  United  States.  It  is 
very  hardy,  and  will  grow  on  almost  any  kind  of  soil.  It  is 
commonly  sown  on  the  lighter  soils,  because  it  will  do  bet- 
ter on  such  soils  than  other  grain  crops.  It  is  usually  sown 
in  the  fall  from  August  to  October,  at  the  rate  of  five  to  six 
pecks  per  acre.  It  is  harvested  in  about  the  same  manner 
as  other  grain  crops  are.. 
Questions: 

1.     Tell  what  you  can  about  the  importance,  uses,  varieties  and 
culture  of  barley  and  of  rye. 
Arithmetic: 

1.  If  rye  yields  16  bushels  per  acre,  weighing  56  lbs.  per  bushel, 
how  many  pounds  are  produced  per  acre? 

2.  If  barley  yields  25  bushels  per  acre,  weighing  48  lbs.  per  bushel, 
how  many  pounds  are  produced  per  acre? 

Exercises: 

1.  Gather  samples  of  seed  of  all  the  grain  crops  grown  in  your 
neighborhood  and  make  sure  that  you  can  properly  name  each.  Find 
two  or  three  of  the  most  popular  varieties  of  wheat,  oats  and  barley 
grown  in  your  community.  Can  you  tell  these  varieties  apart  by 
the  seed? 


GRAIN  CROPS  59 

2.  Gather  samples  of  the  different  kinds  and  varieties  of  grain 
from  the  field  when  headed  out.  Can  you  tell  wheat,  oats,  and  barley 
apart  when  growing  before  they  have  headed  out?  Can  you  tell 
them  apart  after  they  are  headed  out?     How? 

3.  Write  a  full  tabulated  description  of  wheat  plants,  oat  plants, 
barley  plants,  noting  roots,  stems,  leaves,  heads,  and  kernels,  and  tell 
how  you  can  tell  them  apart. 

Compare  the  roots  of  grain  plants  with  the  roots  of  clover  and 
timothy  plants. 

4.  Chew  a  small  sample  of  wheat  and  see  if  you  can  make  gum 
out  of  it.  Try  to  make  gum  from  oats,  barley,  or  corn.  Can  you  do  it? 
What  is  the  value  of  the  gluten? 

5.  Select  a  small  handful  of  the  best  kernels  of  wheat,  oats,  and 
barley  that  you  can  find.  Compare  these  with  other  samples  of  seed 
being  planted  in  your  neighborhood. 

6.  Figure  as  carefully  as  possible  what  it  costs  on  your  farm  to 
produce  wheat  and  oats. 

7.  Germinate  a  few  plump  and  a  few  shriveled  kernels  of  wheat 
or  oats  side  by  side  between  moist  blotters  and  note  results. 

8.  Try  to  obtain  facts  from  several  farms  and  tabulate  results 
as  to  amount  of  wheat  and  oats  produced  per  acre. 


CHAPTER  V 
CULTIVATED  CROPS 

CORN 

GENERAL  FEATURES  OF  THE  CORN  CROP 

Com  is  an  odd  but  true  grass  like  timothy  or  wfieat. 
It  is  native  to  America  and  was  imported  into  Europ)6  by- 
Columbus  who  found  it  cultivated  by  the  Indians  when 
he  discovered  this  continent.  It  is  adapted  to  temperate 
zones  but  may  be  acclimated  to  the  northern  regions  of 
the  United  States.  It  is  grown  most  in  the  United  States, 
Austria-Hungary,  Argentine,  Russia,  Egypt  and  Australasia. 

Importance. — Corn  is  more  widely  cultivated,  yields 
a  larger  crop  than  any  of  the  other  cereals,  and  its  total 
value  is  greater  than  that  of  any  other  crop  grown  in  this 
country.  In  1914  the  United  States  produced  its  largest 
crop— 2,672,804,000  bushels,  valued  at  $1,702,599,000. 
The  average  acre  yield  was  almost  three  bushels  more 
than  in  1913.  The  average  number  of  bushels  produced 
in  the  world  for  the  years  1905-1909  was  3,585,418,600,  of 
which  76%  was  produced  in  the  United  States.  The  average 
acre  value  of  corn  in  the  United  States  is  $12.53.  The  value 
of  the  grain  alone  in  this  country  is  greater  than  that  of  any 
other  two  farm  crops  produced  and  greater  than  that  of  the 
wheat,  oat,  barley,  flax,  rye  and  tobacco  crops  combined. 
The  grain  is  used  in  different  forms  as  food  for  both  man  and 
beast,  while  its  many  manufactured  and  by-products  have 
extensive  uses.  The  fodder  is  also  made  to  serve  in  various 
ways  as  food  for  stock. 

Yield  of  Com. — Average  yields  of  corn  in  eTea  the 
best  corn-growing  states  of  the  Union  are  very  low,  much 
lower  in  fact  than  yields  secured  by  the  best  farmers.  It 
is  well  worth  the  time  of  any  one  interested  in  farming  to 
know  the  methods  practiced  by  the  best  farmers,  tiiat 
the  maximum  yields  at  the  least  possible  expense  of  fesbor 
and  fertility  may  be  secured. 


CULTIVATED  CROPS  W 

As  farmers  change  from  grain  raising  to  a  more  diver- 
sified type  of  agriculture,  more  live  stock  will  be  kept  and 
more  corn  raised.  The  average  160-acre  farm  will  then 
raise  from  30  to  50  acres  of  corn  each  year. 

A  Young  Man*s  Opportunity. — If  a  young  man  begins 
farming  on  one  of  these  farms  when  he  is  twenty  years  old, 
and  continues  until  he  is  fifty,  he  will  raise  during  his  active 
life  approximately  1,200  acres  of  corn.  It  will  make  quite 
a  difference  to  him  and  his  family  whether  he  follows  indif- 
ferent methods  of  farming  and  gets  an  average  yield  of  30 
bushels  per  acre,  or  whether  he  follows  good  methods  and 
gets  50  bushels  per  acre.  It  will  pay,  and  pay  well,  any  boy 
who  expects  to  raise  corn  to  thoroughly  master  the  subject, 
so  that  he  will  get  the  extra  20  bushels  per  acre. 

Requirements. — Nearly  every  large  business  is  made  up 
of  many  details,  and  corn  growing  is  no  exception.  The 
lour  general  requirements  for  a  good  crop  of  com  are,  good 
seed,  good  soil,  good  tillage  and  good  climatic  conditions. 

Good  seed  is  easily  secured  by  selecting  good  ears  of  corn 
from  good  plants,  and  by  carefully  curing,  storing,  testing 
and  grading  it. 

Good  soil  may  be  had  in  almost  any  part  of  the  United 
States  by  properly  caring  for  the  land  we  have.  By  prac- 
ticing rotation  of  crops,  by  keeping  live  stock  and  feeding 
on  the  farm  most  of  the  field  crops  raised  instead  of  selling 
them  and  thus  losing  fertility,  by  draining  land  that  is 
too  wet,  and  by  keeping  in  check  noxious  weeds,  land  may 
be  maintained  at  a  high  state  of  productivity. 

Good  tillage  means  doing  the  things  which  make  the 
soil  the  best  possible  place  for  the  crop  to  grow.  This 
requires  a  knowledge  of  the  soil,  of  the  movement  of  water 
in  the  soil,  of  the  habits  of  plants,  and  of  the  methods  by 
which  plant  food  is  liberated. 

Climatic  Conditions. — Good  seed,  good  soil,  and  good 
tillage  are  within  the  control  of  the  farmer.  Climatic 
conditions  are  not,  though  he  may  do  many  things  to  guard 
against  unfavorable  weather.  He  can  drain  his  land  to 
avoid  an  excess  of  moisture  and  to  make  his  soil  warmer. 
He  can  regulate  his  tillage  operations  to  conserve  moisture 
in  case  of  drouth  and  to  aid  in  warming  the  soil,  if  it  is  toe 


62  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

cold.  By  manuring  land  and  by  growing  clover  occasion- 
ally, he  can  make  a  soil  warmer,  more  retentive  of  moisture, 
and  increase  its  producing  power,  so  that  crops  will  grow 
more  rapidly  and  thus  ripen  in  a  shorter  time.  Climatic 
conditions  are  usually  favorable,  so  that,  with  good  methods 
of  farming,  good  crops  can  be  grown  practically  every  year. 
Some  farmers  in  the  corn  belt  have  raised  more  than 
one  hundred  bushels  of  corn  per  acre.  Let  us  set  our  stand- 
ard at  that  and  be  satisfied  with  nothing  less. 
Questions: 

1.  Why  do  you  think  it  worth  while  for  a  boy  to  study  about 
corn  growing? 

2c  Name  at  least  four  conditions  necessary  to  secure  a  good 
crop  of  corn. 

3.     What  may  one  do  to  reduce  the  bad  effects  of  unfavorable 
weather? 
Arithmetic; 

1.  A  and  B  each  grow  40  acres  of  corn  per  year  for  30  years. 
How  many  acres  does  each  grow  in  the  30  years? 

2.  If  B  uses  the  best  known  methods  of  corn  growing  and  set  "es 
an  average  yield  of  20  bus.  per  acre  more  than  A,  how  many  k.  '^ 
more  corn  will  he  raise  in  30  years  than  A  raises?  How  much  will  iii.. 
extra  corn  be  worth  at  an  average  price  of  54c.  per  bushel? 

SIZES  OF  KERNELS  OF  CORN 

Variation  of  Com  Kernels. — There  is  a  great  variation 
in  the  size  of  kernels  of  corn;  and  while  this  has  little  to 
do  with  the  yield — that  is,  some  varieties  with  compara- 
tively small  kernels  may  yield  more  than  other  varieties 
with  large  kernels — it  is,  nevertheless,  important  to  select 
ears  of  corn  on  which  the  kernels  are  about  uniform  in  size. 

To  Compare  Kernels. — Shell  kernels  from  the  tip,  the 
butt  and  some  from  the  middle  of  an  ear  of  corn,  keeping 
the  three  kinds  separate.  Lay  three  of  the  even  sized  ker- 
nels from  the  middle  of  the  ear  together  on  a  sheet  of  paper 
and  draw  a  circle  about  them.  Make  the  circle  just  large 
enough  so  the  three  kernels  will  lie  flat  within.  (Circle 
about  the  size  of  a  nickel.)  See  how  many  of  the  small 
tip  kernels  can  be  laid  in  this  circle  and  how  many  butt 
kernels.  This  circle  is  about  the  size  of  a  hole  in  the  plate 
of  the  corn  planter.  Notice  how  much  thicker  some  of  the 
butt  kernels  are  than  kernels  from  the  middle  of  the  ear. 


CULTIVATED  CROPS 


63 


Figure  21. — Good  ears  of  corn,  with 
straight  rows  and  even  kernels. 


Figure  22. — Poor  ears  of  corn.  Not© 
the  crooked  rows  and  irregular  ker- 
nels. 


Examine  a  corn  planter,  if  possible,  to  see  how  it  drops 

the  corn. 

It  is  very  important  to  the  farmer  that  all  his  seed  corn 

be  uniform  in  size,  because  corn  is  now  planted  by  machines 

and  unless  the  kernels 
are  about  the  same  size 
and  shape  the  machine 
cannot  drop  the  same 
number  in  each  hill.  If 
uneven  sized  kernels 
were  used  for  planting, 
the  number  in  a  hill 
would  vary  as  the  num- 
ber of  kernels  you  were 
able  to  place  in  the  cir- 
cles   you    drew    varied. 

Most  farmers  like  to  plant  three  kernels  in  a  hill,  because 


@®@ 


77>5. 


j^iiDDLE.     ^urr. 


Figure  23. — Relative  size  and  shape  of  tip, 
middle  and  butt  kernels  of  corn.  The 
circle  represents  the  hole  in  the  plate  in 
a  corn  planter,  with  the  number  of  ker- 
nels of  different  sizes  that  a  planter  would 
drop.     Photo  by  H.   D.  Ayer. 


64 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


they  have  found  that  three  stalks  to  a  hill  give  the  best 
yields. 

Even  Seed. — Farmers  can  get  even  corn  to  plant  by 
selecting  even,  straight  rowed  ears  of  corn,  and  by  shelling 
off  the  tip  and  butt  kernels,  using  this  part  for  feed  and  sav- 
ing only  the  more  even  kernels  from  the  middle  of  the  ears 
to  plant.  The  whole  crop  on  an  acre  of  corn  depends  on 
a  few  ears  of  seed  corn. 

Questions: 

1.  Do  the  size  and  shape  of  kernels  of  seed  corn  make  any  differ- 
ence to  the  farmer? 

2.  How  can  farmers  get  even  seed  corn? 

3.  If  the  tip  kernels  were  put  into  a  planter,  would  it  drop  too 
many  or  too  few? 

Arithmetic: 

1.  After  the  tip  and  butt  kernels  of  corn  have  been  shelled  off 
from  an  ear,  count  the  number  of  rows  of  kernels;  then  count  the  num- 
ber of  kernels  in  one  row.     How  many  kernels  on  the  ear  of  corn? 

2.  Find  how  many  hills  of  corn  on  an  acre  when  corn  is  planted 
in  hills  3  ft.  8  in.  apart  each  way. 

Note. — There  are  160  sq  rds.  in  an  acre,  and  each  hill  of  corn 
takes  up  3  ft.  8  in.  x  3  ft.  8  in.  or  13  4-9  sq.  ft.  of  space. 

3.  If  three  kernels  are  planted  in  each  hill,  how  many  ears  of 
corn  like  the  one  you  counted  are  required  to  plant  an  acre? 

PARTS  OF  A  KERNEL  OF  CORN 

Examining  Kernels. — It  is 

not  always  easy  to  believe 
that  there  is  a  quite  complete, 
though  small,  corn  plant  in 
each  kernel  of  corn.  If  you 
will  dissect  a  few  kernels  of 
corn,  they  will  furnish  a  very 
good  object-lesson.  A  kernel 
of  corn  consists  of  three  parts 
— an  outside  shell  or  seed 
coat,  a  little  speck  of  life,  or 
the  embryo,  and  about  the 
embryo  a  white,  starchy  sub- 
stance or  food  portion. 

The  seed  coat  may  be 
easily  removed  from  a  kernel  of  corn  that  has  been  soaked 
for  a  few  minutes  in  hot  water.     It  is  hard  and  tough.     Its 


Figure  24. — Parts  of  kernel  of  flint 
corn.  1.  Side  on  which  the  em- 
bryo is  found.  2.  Side  opposite 
the  embryo.  3.  Kernel  with  em- 
bryo and  seed  coat  removed.  4. 
The  embryo.  5.  Seed  coat  removed 
from  the  kernel. 


CULTIVATED  CROPS  65 

purpose  is  to  protect  the  parts  within.  It  protects  them 
from  heat,  cold,  and  moisture. 

The  Embryo. — The  speck  of  Ufe,  or  embryo,  may  be 
taken  from  a  soaked  kernel  of  corn  by  the  use  of  a  sharp 
knife  or  a  needle.  It  is  really  a  very  tiny  live  corn  plant, 
and  is  found  bedded  near  the  tip  of  the  kernel,  in  the  white 
starchy  part.  This  embryo  has  a  root  and  a  stem.  The 
stem  is  not  green,  however,  because  it  has  been  shut  up  in 
the  dark.  If  corn  is  properly  ripened  and  kept  dry,  the  little 
plant  within  each  kernel  will  stay  alive  a  long  time,  and  be 
ready  to  grow  when  the  kernel  containing  it  is  put  into  the 
ground  and  supplied  with  heat  and  moisture.  If  corn  be 
allowed  to  freeze,  perhaps  thaw  out  and  freeze  again,  the 
little  embryo  within  a  kernel  is  not  likely  to  live,  and  the 
kernel  would  not  grow  if  planted.  It  is  for  this  reason 
that  farmers  are  careful  to  select  for  seed  well  ripened  ears 
of  corn,  and  to  store  them  safely  in  a  dry  place. 

Food  Material. — After  the  seed  coat  has  been  removed 
and  the  embryo  taken  out,  a  large  part  of  the  kernel  is  still 
left.  It  is  the  food  part.  It  makes  food  for  us  when  the 
com  is  ground  into  meal;  or,  when  the  seed  is  planted  and 
the  embryo  begins  to  grow,  it  is  this  part  which  furnishes 
the  embryo  with  food  until  it  has  developed  roots  and  can 
get  its  food  from  the  soil.  The  large  kernels  have  more  of 
this  food  material  than  the  small  ones.  A  stronger  plant 
will  grow  from  a  large  kernel  than  from  a  small  one,  on 
account  of  the  greater  amount  of  food  material  the  larger 
kernel  contains  for  the  early  growth  of  the  little  plant. 
This  is  one  reason  why  plump  kernels  are  better  for  seed. 

Questions: 

1.  A  kernel  of  corn  consists  of  what  parts? 

2.  Tell  all  you  can  about  each  part. 

3.  Where  in  the  kernel  did  you  find  the  embryo? 

4.  What  would  injure  or  kill  the  embryo? 

5.  How  should  corn  which  you  mean  to  plant  be  kept? 

6.  From  which  kernels  come  the  strongest  plants?     Why? 
Arithmetic: 

1.  If  com  is  planted  May  15th  and  is  struck  by  a  frost  Sept. 
1st,  how  many  days  will  it  have  in  which  to  mature? 

2.  A  bushel  of  seed  corn  will  plant  seven  acres  in  check  rows  and 
is  worth  $2.50  per  bushel.     What  is  the  cost  of  seed  corn  per  acre? 

3.  A  pays  $5.00  per  bushel  for  seed  com,  B  pays  $2.00  per  bashel. 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


Each  one  plants  seven  acres  with  his  bushel  of  seed.  Hovr  much 
more  corn  must  A  get  per  acre  than  B  to  pay  the  extra  amount  for  his 
seed,  if  corn  the  following  fall  is  worth  54c.  per  bushel? 

TESTING  SEED  CORN  FOR  GERMINATION 

Germination. — A  seed  is  said  to  germinate  when  it 
sprouts  or  begins  to  grow.  Most  farmers  are  careful  to 
use  kernels  from  the  middle  of  the  ears  of  corn,  because 
the  kernels  are  more  even  in  size  and  shape  and  the  corn 
planter  can,  therefore,  drop  the  required  number,  usually 
three,  to"  every  hill.  Suppose  one  ear  of  corn  which  has 
five  hundred  kernels  has  been  frozen  or  otherwise  injured 
so  that  the  embryo  in  each  kernel  is  dead.  If  the  corn 
planter  drops  one  of  these  bad  kernels  with  two  good  ones 
in  every  hill  until  the  five  hundred  bad  kernels  are  all  planted, 
there  will  be  five  hundred  hills  each  with  one  stalk  missing. 
This  fault  would  reduce  a  farmer's  yield;  and  the  more  of 
such  ears  he  planted,  the  greater  would  be  the  reduction 
of  his  yield.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  all  the  seeds  dropped 
in  every  hill  were  seeds  that  would  grow,  the  farmer  could 
be  sure  of  a  good  stand  of  corn.  This  point  is  important, 
because  it  costs  as  much  to  prepare  the  land,  plant  and 
cultivate  the  crop  for  a  poor  stand   as   for   a   good   one. 

Will  It  Grow?  —  One 
cannot  always  tell  by 
looking  at  an  ear  of  corn 
whether  or  not  the  kernels 
will  grow.  A  farmer,  to 
make  sure  he  is  planting 
only  good  seed,  must  test 
his  corn.  He  may  test  one 
hundred  kernels  taken  at 
random  from  a  number 
of  ears  or  a  sack  of  corn; 
,  if  he  finds  that  only 
per  cent  of  his  corn 
will  grow,  he  must  use  this 
poor  seed  or  buy  seed. 
A  much  safer  and  a  very  easy  and  simple  way  is  to  test 
each  ear  before  it  is  shelled.  One  wishes  to  know  if  all 
or  most   of   the   kernels   on  an  ear  of  corn  will  sprout  or 


Figure  25. — A  simple  germinator  consisting  -,      , 

of  a  plate  partly  filled  with  sand,  a  cloth  DUt 

marked  in  squares  for  the  corn  from  each  qq 

ear  to  be  tested,  and  the  cloth  and  plate  ° 
with  which  to  cover  the  corn. 


CULTIVATED  CROPS 


•7 


grow.  If  he  takes  ten  kernels  from  one  ear,  and  finds  that 
all  of  the  ten  kernels  sprout,  he  can  safely  assume  that 
the  rest  of  the  kernels  on  that  ear  will  grow.  That  is  a 
good  ear  for  him  to  plant. 

If  he  takes  ten  kernels  from  another  ear,  and  finds  that 
none  or  less  than  half  of  them  sprout,  he  rightly  assumes 
that  the  rest  of  the  kernels  on  that  ear  would  not  be  likely 
to  grow.     That  is  not  a  safe  ear  to  plant. 

To  Test  Com. — By  testing  each  ear  a  person  may  throw 
out  the  poor  ones  and  save  the  good  ones,  which  enables 
him  to  use  his  own  seed  and  to  be  sure  of  planting  only 
good  seed.  A  simple  germinator  may  be  made  as  follows: 
On  a  piece  of  white  outing  flannel  draw  with  a  soft  lead 
pencil  a  six-inch  square,  and  mark  it  off  into  nine  two-inch 
squares,  numbering  the  small  squares  from  one  to  nine. 
Place  the  cloth  thus  marked  over  a  plate  of  sand  or  dirt. 
The  next  step  is  to  number  nine  ears  of  corn.  This  is 
easily  done  by  fastening  a  small  tag  to  the  butt  of  each 
ear  of  com  with  a  pin,  as  shown  in  Figure  26.     Take  ten 


mM,^:.^-m'^ 


Figure  26. — Ears  of  seed  corn  numbered  lor  testing. 

kernels  from  ear  No.  1,  selecting  them  from  different  ports 
of  the  ear,  and  place  them  on  square  No.  1.  Continue 
until  each  square  is  supplied  with  ten  kernels  from  the  ear 
of  the  corresponding  number.  Moisten  the  material  in 
the  plate  thoroughly,  cover  with  another  cloth  and  another 
plate,  to  prevent  too  rapid  evaporation,  and  set  in  a  warm 
place.  Put  up  carefully  the  nine  eai-s  of  com  for  fuiure 
comparison. 

The  germinator  should  be  examined  from  time  to  time 
to  note  the  germination  of  the  kernels.  If  kept  warm  and 
moist  the  corn  should  all  germinate  in  five  to  eight  4afr6. 


68 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


Kernels  slow  in  germinating  should  be  counted  as  worth- 
less, as  they  would  probably  not  grow  in  the  field,  if  unfavor- 
able conditions  prevailed. 

For  testing  a  large  amount  of  seed  corn,  as  for  ten  to 
forty  acres,  a  box  two  to  four  feet  square  may  be  used  in 
place  of  the  plates. 

The  Rag  Doll  Tester. — One  of  the  most  popular  methods 
of  testing  seed  corn  is  by  means  of  the  rag  doll  tester.  These 
testers  may  be  purchased  ready-made,  or  may  be  made  at 
home  or  at  school.  To  make  one  use  a  good  quality  of 
muslin.  Tear  off  a  strip  about  nine  inches  wide  and  five 
feet  long.     With  a  soft  lead  pencil  draw  a  mark  lengthwise 

of  the  cloth  and  ex- 
actly in  the  center. 
Then  every  three 
inches  draw  lines 
crosswise  of  the  cloth. 
Leave  about  fifteen 
inches  on  each  end 
without  crossmarks. 
Then  number  the 
squares,  wet  the 
cloth  and  the  tester 
is  ready  for  the  corn. 
Number  the  ears  of 
corn  to  be  tested  and 
place  six  kernels  from 
ear  number  one  in 
square  number  one.  See  Figure  27.  Continue  placing  six 
kernels  from  each  ear  in  a  square  of  the  same  number  until 
the  tester  is  full.  Place  all  kernels  with  the  tips  one  way 
and  pointing  toward  one  side  of  the  cloth.  Then  roll  the 
cloth  beginning  at  one  end,  using  care  not  to  displace  the 
kernels.  Tie  a  string  about  the  roll  and  place  it  in  a  pail  of 
warm  water  for  a  few  hours.  Then  remove  it  from  the 
water  and  place  the  roll  on  end  in  a  pail  or  other  dish  eight 
or  ten  inches  deep,  and  cover  with  a  cloth  and  keep  in  a 
warm  room.  Place  the  rag  doll  in  the  pail  so  the  tips  of  the 
kernels  will  point  down.    Several  of  the  rag  doll  testers  may 


Figure  27. — A  "rAg  doll"  seed  corn  tester. 


CULTIVATED  CROPS  69 

be  placed  in  one  pail.     After  from  five  to  seven  days  the 

test  may  be  read. 

Questions: 

1.  For  what  reason  should  a  farmer  test  his  seed  com? 

2.  What  are  the  advantages  of  testing  each  ear  over  testing  100 
kernels  out  of  a  sack  full  of  shelled  com? 

3.  How  would  you  proceed  to  test  200  ears  of  com? 
Arithmetic: 

1.  If  seven  of  the  ten  kernels  taken  from  an  ear  of  corn  grow, 
what  per  cent  does  the  ear  germinate?  If  nine  kernels  grow,  what 
per  cent  germinates? 

2.  If  twenty  ears  of  corn  will  plant  one  acre,  what  per  cent  of 
the  corn  in  a  field  will  be  missing  if  the  corn  from  one  of  the  twenty 
ears  will  not  grow?     If  the  corn  from  three  ears  will  not  grow? 

3.  If  a  man  test  400  ears  of  corn,  and  90%''of  the  ears  are  good 
enough  to  plant,  how  many  acres  of  com  will  the  good  seed  plant? 
(Assume  that  twenty  ears  will  plant  an  acre.) 

4.  A  man  can  test  400  ears  of  corn  in  6  hours.  His  time  is  worth 
14c.  per  hour.  If  the  400  ears  will  plant  18  acres,  how  much  does  it 
cost  him  per  acre  to  test  his  corn?  If  corn  is  worth  54c.  per  bushel 
in  the  fall,  how  much  more  com  per  acre  must  a  farmer  get  to  pay 
him  for  thus  testing  his  seed? 

CORN  CULTURE 

The  Com  Field. — In  the  spring  of  the  year,  when  most 
farmers  are  preparing  their  fields  for  corn,  will  be  a  good 
time  to  study  the  planting  phase  of  the  corn  subject.  In 
the  first  place  let  us  see  on  what  kind  of  soil  our  neighbors 
and  fathers  and  brothers  are  to  plant  corn.  Land  that 
produced  clover  or  was  pastured  last  year  is  best,  as  the 
clover  and  grass  roots  have  filled  the  soil  with  vegetable 
matter,  a  very  necessary  condition  for  good  crops.  It 
would  be  better  if  the  land  were  plowed  last  fall,  as  fall 
plowing  gives  the  soil  a  chance  to  settle,  so  that  it  will  not 
dry  out  readily. 

Fall  plowed  land  should  be  thoroughly  disked  in  spring, 
before  planting  to  corn,  to  insure  a  fine,  mellow  seed  bed, 
to  destroy  weeds  and  to  form  a  surface  mulch  to  check 
the  evaporation  of  water. 

If  there  is  no  clover  or  pasture  sod  for  corn,  other  well 
drained  land,  fall  plowed,  well  manured  and  the  manure 
thoroughly  disked  into  the  surface  of  the  soil  before  plant- 
ing, is  the  next  best  place  for  corn.  The  effort  in  any  case 
should  be  to  have  a  rich,  firm  soil,  with  alpout  two  inches 


7« 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


of  loose  soil  on  top  to  check  the  evaporation  of  moisture. 

Grade  Seed  Com. — Practically  all  corn  is  now  planted 
with  a  machine,  and  unless  the  kernels  are  of  uniform  size 
no  machine  can  drop  the  same  number  of  kernels  in  each 
hill,  and  it  is  important  to  do  so- 

As  corn  is  shelled  from  the  ear  there  is  always  more  o 
less  irregularity  in  the  kernels.     This  is  especially  true  if 
the  tip  and  butt  kernels  are  shelled  with  the  rest.     Even 
if  they  are  not  used,  there  are  some  irregular  kemete  in  the 


0^m^ 


Figure  28. — (A)  Corn  as  shelled  from  whole  cob.  (B)  Corn  after  it  bM  been 
graded.  Note  uniformity  of  kernels.  (C)  Small  and  irregular  kerneJ*  WMOoved 
by  the  grader. 

middle  of  the  ear,  owing  to  imperfect  growth.  Examine 
an  eax  of  corn  and  you  will  see  the  irregular  kernels  at  the 
tip  and  butt  and  a  few  in  the  middle.  Irregular  kernels 
are  easily  removed  from  any  sample  of  corn  by  running  it 
through  any  of  the  modem  corn  graders. 

Corn  graders  are  fitted  with  screens  with  holes  of  oertain 
sizes  and  shapes.  As  the  corn  is  run  through,  all  the 
scftall  and  irregular  kernels  are  separated  out,  leavinf  ©nly 


CULTIVATED  CROPS 


71 


the  regular  ones  and  the  kind  a  planter  can  plant  uniformly. 
A  corn  grader  will  cost  about  $10.00,  and  is  well  worth  the 
money  to  any  one  who  is  planting  any  considerable  amount. 
If  one  has  no  com  grader  it  is  advisable  to  shell  off  tip  and 
butt  kernels  and  keep  them  out  of  the  seed  corn. 

Planting. — Corn  is,  as  a  rule,  planted  in  the  spring  at 
about  the  time  danger  of  frost  is  p^st.  There  is,  however, 
no  set  date  for  planting,  but  a  good  practice  to  follow  is  to 
plant  as  early  in  the  spring  as  the  soil  can  be  and  is  well 

prepared  and  is  warm 
enough  so  that  the  seed 
will  germinate.  There 
is  nothing  gained  by 
planting  corn  in  cold, 
wet,  poorly  prepared 
soil;  for,  in  such  con- 
dition, seed,  even  if 
good,  is  very  liable  to 
rot  in  the  ground. 
Probably  one  very  gen- 
eral mistake  is  made  in 
planting  corn  too  deep. 
Corn  cannot  be  made 
to  root  deep  simply  by 
planting  deep.  The 
roots  will  go  wherever  the  soil  conditions  are  most  favorable. 
On  ordinary  land  it  is  not  wise  to  plant  corn  more  than 
from  one  to  two  inches  deep. 
Questions: 

1.  What  is  a  good  crop  to  precede  the  com  crop? 

2.  Why  prefer  fall  plowing  to  spring  plowing  for  com? 

3.  What  IS  gained  by  grading  seed  com? 
Arithmetic: 

1.  It  costs  10c.  per  bushel  to  grade  seed  corn.  What  does  it 
cost  per  acre  if  a  bushel  of  com  plants  7  acres? 

2.  If  a  man  were  to  spend  five  hours  shelling  off  tip  and  butt 
kernels  and  picking  out  irregular  kemels  from  a  bushel  of  seed  com, 
how  much  Avould  it  cost  him,  if  his  time  is  worth  14c.  per  hour?  How 
much  would  it  cost  him  per  acre?     (See  Example  1.) 

REASONS  FOR  THE  CULTIVATION  OF  CORN 

Conservation  of  Moisture.^One  of  the  main  reasons 
for  cultivating  corn  is  to  save  moisture  in  the  soil.     There 


Figure  29. — Planting  Corn.  Straight  rows 
indicate  good  workmanship  and  are  a 
joy   throughout   the  year. 


72  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

are  two  ways  by  which  moisture  is  taken  from  the  soil: 
first,  by  the  growing  crops  and,  second,  by  evaporation 
from  the  surface  of  the  soil.  The  water  that  is  evaporated 
is  worse  than  wasted.  It  is  lost  to  the  crop  and  its  evapora- 
tion tends  to  make  the  soil  cooler.  (Demonstrate  this  by 
moistening  the  hand  and  exposing  it  to  the  air.)  The  hot 
sun,  the  moving  air,  and  the  wind,  greatly  hasten  evapora- 
tion; hence  it  is  evident  that,  if  the  part  of  the  soil  in  which 
the  moisture  is  held  can  be  separated  from  the  sun  and 
wind,  much  less  moisture  will  be  lost  by  evaporation. 

Moisture  moves  in  the  soil  by  capillary  force.  For 
example,  two  .particles  of  sand  lie  close  together  and  one 
is  wetter  than  the  other.  The  dryer  one  will  attract  some 
of  the  water  from  the  other  until  both  are  equally  wet. 

Experiment. — This  capillary  movement  of  water  may 
be  seen  very  plainly  by  following  this  plan  as  suggested: 
Fill  a  glass  half  full  of  sand  and  pour  in  enough  water  to 
thoroughly  wet  the  sand,  being  careful  not  to  wet  the  sides 
of  the  glass.  Now  fill  the  glass  with  dry  fine  sand  and 
watch  the  moisture  creep  upward.  The  water  is  moving 
by  capillary  attraction.  Moisture  will  move  by  capillary 
force  in  any  direction,  but  always  from  moist  to  drier  soil. 

Surface  Mulch. — If  you  will  go  out  in  a  field,  on  a  bright 
day,  where  cultivation  is  being  done,  you  will  notice  that 
very  soon  after  the  cultivator  has  gone  over  the  ground 
the  surface  soil  begins  to  look  dry,  while  the  surface  soil 
where  it  has  not  been  cultivated  appears  more  moist.  Moist- 
ure is  being  evaporated  from  both  surfaces,  but  where  the 
soil  is  firm  moisture  moves  up  from  below  to  replace  that 
evaporated;  and  this  process  will  continue  if  not  checked, 
until  the  soil  is  robbed  of  all  available  moisture.  The 
cultivated  portion  is  so  loose  that  the  moisture  cannot 
readily  pass  up  through  it,  as  the  particles  of  soil  are  not 
close  together,  hence  evaporation  is  checked. 

Too  much  attention  can  hardly  be  given  to  maintain- 
ing this  surface  mulch,  or  loose  soil  on  top.  A  shower  of 
rain  just  sufficient  to  pack  the  surface  may  be  more  injurious 
than  beneficial  to  a  crop,  by  c.i  using  a  great  loss  of  moisture,' 
unless  the  soil  is  cultivated  s<  on  after  the  shower. 

Destruction  of  Weeds. — /  nother  reason  for  cultivating 


CULTIVATED  CROPS  73 


# :    i^^  )^'%Mi^ 


Figure  30. — A  two-row  cultivator  at  work.  Many  farmers  are  now  using  these 
larger  machines.  One  man  can  do  nearly  twice  as  much  work  with  such  a  ma- 
chine as  he  can  with  a  one-row  cultivator. 

is  to  destroy  weeds.  The  smaller  the  weeds  are  the  easier 
it  is  to  kill  them.  On  this  account  it  is  important  that 
soil  be  so  worked  that  most  of  the  weeds  are  destroyed 
before  the  corn  is  planted,  as  it  is  difficult  to  .cultivate  very 
young  corn  and  the  weeds  may  get  ahead  of  the  com.  It 
is  also  cheaper  to  cultivate  with  a  large  harrow  than  with 
a  cultivator.  Of  course  corn  may  be  harrowed  after  it  is 
planted  or  even  after  it  is  up,  but  the  less  harrowing  neces- 
sary at  this  time  the  better,  as  more  or  less  corn  is  injured 
every  time  the  field  is  harrowed. 

In  fields  well  prepared  before  corn  is  planted,  very  few 
weeds  will  be  seen,  and  those  appearing  are  small  and  easily 
killed  at  the  first  cultivation. 

Other  Objects. — Cultivation  aerates  the  soil,  i.  e.,  opens 
it  and  lets  air  into  it,  thereby  stimulating  the  decomposition 
of  vegetable  matter  and  liberating  more  plant  food. 

Cultivation  also  keeps  the  soil  loose,  so  that  rain  which 
falls  may  be  readily  absorbed,  thus  making  a  larger  supply 
upon  which  to  draw  when  a  dry  season  comes. 
Questions:  •'7 

1 .  What  is  the  main  reason  for  cultivating  com? 

2.  In  what  two  ways  is  moisture  taken  from  the  soil? 

3.  How  does  cultivation  check  evaporation? 
'I.    Give  another  reason  for  cultivating  com. 


74  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Arithmetic: 

1.  A  team  travels  2}4  miles  to  cultivate  an  acre  of  com  planted 
3%  ft.  apart  each  way.      How  far  must  it  travel  to  cultivate  8  acres? 

2.  If  a  team  travels  18  miles  with  a  harrow  12  ft.  wide,  how  much 
land  would  it  harrow? 

3.  How  many  times  can  one  afford  to  harrow  land  to  save  one 
cultivation?     (See  two  examples  above.) 

METHODS  OF  CULTIVATINO  CORN 

Depth  to  Cultivate. — There  seems  to  be  an  unsettled 
question  among  farmers  as  to  how  deep  to  cultivate  corn. 
Apparently  there  is  no  rule  that  one  can  safely  follow,  for 
the  conditions  vary  with  soils  and  seasons,  so  that  it  is 
largely  a  matter  that  must  be  settled  by  the  individual 
farmer  and  depends  entirely  upon  the  depth  of  the  corn 
roots.  In  a  dry  loose  soil  corn  roots  will  grow  nearly  straight 
down,  while  in  a  heavy  or  more  moist  soil  they  will  spread 
out  near  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Roots  naturally  grow 
where  there  is  available  plant  food;  and  that,  we  have 
learned,  is  where  there  is  heat,  air  and  moisture.  In  wet 
years  they  find  this  condition  near  the  surface,  and  in  dry 
years  or  in  dry  soil  they  must  go  deeper  down  for  the  plant 
food.  The  accompanying  cut  shows  how  corn  roots  usually 
grow.     (Figure  31.) 

Roots  of  Com. — A  very  interesting  study  of  the  root 
system  of  corn  may  be  made  by  taking  a  rather  blunt  wooden 
paddle  and  carefully  scraping  away  the  loose  soil  between 
two  hills  of  corn,  until  the  roots  are  exposed.  One  may 
then  observe  the  roots,  how  far  they  spread  out  from  the 
hill  of  corn  and  how  near  the  surface  they  grow.  As  a  rule, 
when  the  corn  is  a  foot  high  the  roots  from  the  rows  will 
be  overlapping  and  within  one  to  four  inches  from  the  sur- 
face, depending  upon  how  wet  the  soil  is  and  how  recently 
and  how  deeply  cultivated. 

Results  of  Deep  Cultivation. — From  the  above  facts  it 
is  quite  evident  that,  if  the  cultivator  is  run  too  deep,  some 
of  the  roots  will  be  cut  off.  The  roots  are  the  feeders  of 
the  plants;  consequently  every  one  that  is  cut  off  decreases 
the  amount  of  moisture  and  plant  food  the  plant  will  get. 
The  effects  of  too  deep  cultivation  may  be  seen  by  cutting 
down  in  the  soil  four  inches,  with  a  sharp  spade,  two  to 
four  inches  from  a  hill  of  corn.     Then  note  results.     If  it 


CULTIVATED  CROPS 


7& 


is  a  dry,  hot  day  the  leaves  will  soon  begin  to  curl  up  on 
the  plant  thus  injured,  showing  that  a  portion  of  its  water 
supply  has  been  cut  off. 

It  is  necessary,  however,  to  cultivate  to  kill  weeds,  to 
let  air  into  the  soil  and  to  form  a  surface  mulch  to  save 
moisture;  and  many  times  it  is  necessary  to  cultivate  deep 
enough  to  injure  corn  roots  in  order  to  accompUsh  these 
various  things;  but  the  aim  should  always  be  to  cultivate 
no  deeper  than  necessary.  If  deep  cultivation  is  to  be 
practiced  at  all  it  should  be  done  while  the  com  is  small,  as 
it  is  injured  less  at  this  time. 

Cultivator. — The  kind  of  cultivator  used  has  much  to 
do  with  the  depth  of  cultivation.     If  a  cultivator  with  two 

large  shovels  on  a  side 
is  used,  it  must  be  run 
deeper  to  cover  all  the 
space  between  the  rows, 
than  one  which  has 
three,  four  or  five  shov- 
els on  a  side.  The  small 
shovels  and  more  of 
them  do  finer,  shallow- 
er work  than  the  large 
shovels;  but  where  corn 
has  been  neglected  until 
the  weeds  are  large,  the 
larger  shovels  are  bet- 
ter, because  they  do  not 
clog  up  so  easily  and 
because  they  plow  out 
the  weeds  instead  of 
cultivating   them. 

Surface  Cultivators. 
— At  present  many  far- 
mers are  using  what  are 
called  surface  cultiva- 
tors. In  place  of  shov- 
els there  are  two  or  more  knives  or  blades  that  run 
an  inch  or  so  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  separating 
the  surface  soil  from  the  soil  below  and  cutting  off  Jaet 


Figure  31. 


-The  root  system  of  corn, 
sas  Bulletin  No.  147 


Kan- 


76  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

below  the  surface  all  weeds  growing  between  the  rows. 
If  possible,  examine  cultivators  with  these  different  kinds 
of  shovels  and  note  the  work  they  do. 

Check  vs.  Drills. — Many  farmers  drill  in  their  corn, 
i.  e.,  plant  it  in  rows  only  one  way.  It  can  then  be  cul- 
tivated only  one  way  and  the  weeds  growing  between  the 
hills  cannot  be  reached  with  the  cultivator.  If  these  weeds 
cannot  be  covered  by  having  the  cultivator  throw  earth 
against  the  rows,  they  must  be  pulled  by  hand  or  let  grow. 

Other  farmers  plant  their  corn  in  check  rows.  As 
they  can  then  cultivate  it  both  ways,  they  can  get  all  the 
weeds  with  the  cultivator,  excepting  an  occasional  one 
growing  in  the  hills.  Try  to  look  over  fields  of  corn  planted 
each  of  these  ways,  at  different  times  during  the  summer, 
and  see  which  fields  are  the  cleaner.  If  you  can  find  corn 
planted  each  way  in  the  same  field  or  on  the  same  farm, 
and  receiving  the  same  number  of  cultivations,  it  will  be 
a  better  comparison.  As  one  of  the  main  objects  in  growing, 
corn  is  to  clean  the  land  of  weeds,  it  is  better  on  weedy  land 
to  plant  corn  so  that  it  can  be  cultivated  both  ways.  If 
corn  is  cultivated  both  ways,  it  is  easier  to  keep  the  sur- 
face smooth  and  level,  a  condition  which  is  desirable,  as  a 
ridged  surface  is  hard  to  work  down,  and  more  surface  is 
exposed,  causing  more  evaporation. 

Questions: 

1.  Why  is  it  not  wise  to  cultivate  corn  too  deeply? 

2.  What  can  you  say  about  different  types  of  cultivators? 

3.  What  is  said  of  planting  corn  in  drills  or  in  check  rows? 

Arithmetic: 

1.  If  the  time  of  a  man  and  team  is  worth  $4.00  per  day,  what 
is  the  cost  per  acre  to  cultivate,  if  they  cultivate  8  acres  per  day? 
How  much  does  it  cost  to  cultivate  an  acre  of  corn  six  times? 

2.  How  many  bushels  of  com  at  54c  per  bushel  must  a  farmer 
get  to  pay  for  cultivating  his  corn  six  times? 

3.  If  the  time  of  a  man  and  three  horses  is  worth  $5.00.  What  is 
the  cost  per  acre,  if  they  cultivate  14  acres  per  day?  (Three  horses 
can  draw  a  two  row  cultivator.) 

SELECTION  OF  SEED  CORN 

Selection  Neglected. — A  comparatively  small  amount 
of  seed  corn  is  needed  each  year,  on  the  average  farm,  as 
one  bushel  will  plant  from  six  to  eight  acres.     On  this  ac- 


CULTIVATED  CR0P8 


count  the  matter  of  saving  seed  corn  is  likely  to  be  neg- 
lected, as  farmers  are  very  busy  in  the  fall  with  other  duties. 
Were  the  saving  of  the  price  of  seed  the  only  advantage 
gained  in  selecting  seed  corn  on  the  home  farm,  one  might 
be  justified  in  neglecting  it;  but  this  is  by  no  means  the  ease. 
Adapted  to  Localities. — Corn  in  some  respects  is  a  ten- 
der plant,  very  easily  affected   unfavorably  by  cold  weather 

conditions  or  cold  wet  soil,  and 
favorably  by  warm  weather  and 
warm  soil.  On  this  account  corn 
grown  under  one  condition  for 
several  years  becomes  adapted 
to  those  conditions  and  is  not 
well  suited  to  other  conditions. 
No  locality  is  suited  to  produce 
seed  corn  for  any  very  large  ter- 
ritory. Corn  that  does  well  in  the 
north  will  grow  and  do  well  far- 
ther south,  but  as  a  rule  a  larger 
corn  can  be  produced  on  most  of 
the  well  drained  soils  of  the 
.south,  and  will  yield  more  than 
the  comparatively  small  corn 
grown  farther  north.  Corn  suited 
to  Indiana  conditions  will  grow 
if  planted  in  northern  Minnesota, 
but  in  average  years  it  will  not 
mature  well,  as  the  season  is  too 
short.  The  same  varied  condi- 
tions may  be  found  on  different 
farms  in  the  same  locality. 
Farms  with  a  light  warm  soil,  or 
well-drained  farms  on  which  the 
soil  is  kept  highly  productive 
by  good  methods  of  cropping, 
manuring,  etc.,  can  grow  and 
mature  a  larger  variety  of  corn 
than  farms  in  the  same  neigh- 
borhood with  heavy,  and  poorly 
drained    soil    or    soils    in    poor  condition. 


Figure  32. — Two  varieties  of  Dent 
Corn  growing  side  b.v  side  and 
given  similar  treatment.  That 
on  tiie  right  is  mature,  as 
shown  by  the  droopinr;  ears; 
that  on  the  left  is  still  quite 
green,  as  shown  by  the  erect 
ears.  Both  are  Yellow  Dent 
Corn,  but  one  later  than  the 
other  by  being  grown  under 
different    conditions. 


78  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

If  a  person  wishes  to  get  the  best  results  from  growing 
corn,  he  cannot  afford  to  neglect  selecting  his  own  seed 
from  his  own  farm.  By  selecting  the  best  ears  of  corn  from 
the  best  stalks  one  gets  seed  from  the  plants  that  are  best 
adapted  to  the  conditions  of  the  farm,  as  shown  by  their 
superior  development  the  previous  year. 

Large  Varieties. — A  mistake  very  commonly  made  is 
to  select  too  large  or  too  late  a  variety  of  corn.  Every 
one  likes  to  grow  large  ears  of  corn,  and  on  this  account, 
when  seed  is  secured  from  some  other  community  or  from 
seedsmen,  a  larger  variety  than  is  suited  to  the  conditions 
is  likely  to  be  chosen.  Large  ears  of  corn  are  not  neces- 
sary to  large  yields,  and  it  is  far  better  to  be  sure  of  a  good 
crop,  by  using  a  variety  that  will  mature,  than  to  attempt 
to  grow  too  large  a  variety  and  have  a  partial  or  complete 
failure  occasionally. 

Varieties  May  Be  Made  Larger. — It  is  well  to  select 
a  variety  of  corn  that  will  be  quite  sure  to  mature  in  your 
locality.  If  the  soil  is  well  drained,  well  cultivated  and  kept 
at  a  high  state  of  productivity  by  growing  clover  occasionally 
and  by  keeping  live  stock  and  manuring  it,  and  if  the  climate 
will  permit  the  growing  of  a  larger  variety,  one  can  in 
a  few  years  make  the  variety  larger  by  selecting  the  larger 
ears.  Such  conditions  will  practically  insure  a  good  crop 
of  corn  each  year,  unless  one  selects  too  large  ears  and 
thus  makes  his  variety  too  late.  If  in  a  few  years  you  can 
not  improve  the  corn  to  the  size  you  wish  it,  it  is  Ukely  that 
your  conditions  are  not  favorable  for  a  larger  variety;  and, 
were  you  to  get  a  larger  variety  from  some  other  locality, 
you  would  be  very  hkely  to  lose  your  crop  or  have  soft  com, 
in  the  ordinary  years. 

To  Make  a  Variety  Early. — If  one  wishes  to  make  a  variety 
of  corn  one  is  growing  earlier,  one  can  do  so  by  selecting 
the  ears  that  ripen  first.  Such  a  selection  cannot  be  made 
after  all  the  corn  is  ripened.  If  one  can  not  select  the  seed 
when  the  corn  is  ripening  one  can  make  some  progress 
toward  earliness  by  selecting  the  small  ears  of  com  with 
comparatively  shallow  kernels.  Large  ears  with  deep  ker- 
nels are  very  seldom  found  in  an  early  variety  of  ©om. 


CULTIVATED  CR0P8  79 

Questions: 

1.  Give  two  reasons  why  it  is  advisable  for  a  farmer  to  select 
his  own  seed  corn  from  his  own  farm. 

2.  Why  is  it  better  to  have  a  variety  of  com  that  is  a  little  'too 
small  rather  than  one  that  is  too  large? 

3.  Give  two  ways  by  which  a  variety  of  corn  may  be  made  larger. 

4.  To  get  com  that  will  ripen  earlier,  how  and  when  would  you 
select  it  in  the  field?  How  select  it  from  a  large  number  of  husked  ears? 
Arithmetic: 

1.  A  plants  7  acres  of  corn  with  1  bu.  of  seed  and  it  yields  40 
bus.  per  acre.  How  many  bushels  of  com  does  he  get?  Extra  good 
seed  would  have  increased  the  yield  20%.  How  many  more  bushels 
of  com  would  he  have  received  had  he  used  good  seed?  How  much 
would  the  increased  yield  be  worth  at  54c.  per  bushel?  How  much 
would  a  bushel  of  extra  good  seed  com  have  been  worth  to  that  farmer? 

2.  There  are  3,240  hills  of  com  on  an  acre  when  planted  44  inches 
apart  each  way.  If  a  farmer  gets  3  10-oz.  ears  from  each  hill,  how 
many  bushels  of  corn  will  he  produce? 

HOW  TO  SELECT  SEED  CORN 

Kind  to  Select. — If  one  is  to  get  the  best  seed  ears  from 
a  field  of  corn,  one  must  have  well  in  mind  what  a  really 
good  ear  of  corn  looks  like,  and  select  only  such  ears.  A 
great  advantage  of  selecting  seed  corn  in  the  field  over  se- 
lecting it  from  a  load  of  husked  corn  is  that  the  stalks  may 
be  considered  as  well  as  the  ears.  No  matter  how  good  an 
ear  of  corn  may  be,  it  should  not  be  taken  from  a  poor  plant. 
Usually  good  ears  come  from  good  plants,  but  there  are 
exceptions.  It  is  well  to  select  more  seed  corn  than  is 
needed.  Then  another  and  more  careful  selection  may  be 
made  in  the  spring  before  planting. 

Time  to  Select  Seed  Com. — In  order  that  seed  corn 
may  be  sure  to  keep  over  winter  and  still  germinate  readily 
it  must  be  taken  from  the  husk  and  placed  where  it  can  dry 
out  before  freezing  weather.  If  one  weighs  an  ear  of  freshly 
husked  ripe  corn,  then  leaves  it  in  a  living  room  for  a  month 
and  weighs  it  again,  it  will  be  found  that  it  has  lost  in  weight. 
The  loss  in  weight  is  from  the  evaporation  of  moisture. 
Moisture  is  detrimental  to  seed  corn.  Select  and  husk 
seed  corn  before  there  is  danger  of  a  killing  frost  so  that  the 
seed  will  not  be  injured  by  frost  and  so  it  will  have  time  to 
dry  out  before  freezing  weather. 

Condition. — The  first  thing  to  consider  in  an  ear  of 
corn  for  seed  is  condition.     It  must  be  firm  and  solid  to  the 


80 


ELEMENTS  OF  h  ^RM  PRACTICE 


touch  and  heavy,  not  light  and  chaffy.  Loose  or  soft  ker- 
nels indicate  immature  ears,  which  must  be  avoided,  as  corn 
from  such  ears  is  not  likely  to  germinate  and,  if  the  kernels 
do  germinate,  the  plants  are  likely  to  be  weak.  The  kernels 
should  be  bright  in  color  and  free  from  mold  or  injury. 

Shape  of  Ear. — Ears  should  be  uniform  in  shape  and 
size,  and  each  ear  should  be  as  nearly  the  same  size  at  tip 
and  butt  as  possible.  The  tips  should  be  well  filled  out, 
as  this  indicates  hardiness  and  well  matured  corn.  Large 
butts  should  be  avoided  as  they  indicate  coarseness  and  are 
hard  to  dry  out.  There  are,  also,  more  irregular  kernels 
on  these  large  butts  than  on  properly  formed  butts. 

Size  of  Ear. — The  size  of  ears  will  depend  upon  the 
variety  and  the  locality.  But  do  not  select  too  large  ears, 
as  they  will  have  a  tendency  to  make  the  variety  later, 
which  may  result  in  considerable  loss  in  unfavorable  sea- 
sons. Select  the  medium  sized,  well  matured  ears  as  nearly 
uniform  in  size  as  possible. 

Kernels. — Ears  with 
kernels  as  nearly  uniform 
in  type  as  possible  should 
be  selected.  There  are 
good  ears  of  corn  with 
different  types  of  kernels, 
but  for  any  one  variety  it 
is  important  that  the  ker- 
nels be  uniform,  as  only 
such  kernels  can  be  plant- 
ed uniformly  by  machin- 
ery. The  most  desirable 
kernels  are  deep,  indicat- 
ing a  large  amount  of  corn 
in  proportion  to  cob,  but 
the  point  can  be  overdone, 
as  deep  kerneled  varieties 
are  usually  late  in  ripening. 

Figure  33.— The  ear  on  the  left  represents  SpaCC  bctween  KemelS. 

a   good    type   to   select   for   seed      It   has    J^  ^g    desirable    to    have 

even,    regular    rows    and    kernels    and    a  .                                                                , 

good  proportion  of  corn  to  cob.     The  ear  JUSt  aS  mUCh  COm   arOUnCl 

Zit  3Lai.'  "'""""' '"  °''""'°'"'  the  cob  as  possible;  eon- 


CULTIVATED  CROPS  81 

sequently  any  space  between  the  kernels  is  to  be  avoided. 
These  spaces  are  caused  by  rounded  kernels,  and  are  more 
common  and  larger  in  flint  than  in  dent  varieties. 

Selecting. — It  is  a  comparatively  small  task  to  go  through 
the  field  with  a  sack  and  select  the  desired  ears,  or  when  the 
corn  is  husked  from  the  stai^ding  stalks  the  ears  may  be 
selected  as  the  husking  is  being  done  and  the  seed  ears 
thrown  into  a  sack  or  small  box  on  the  side  of  the  wagon. 
This  manner  is  preferable  to  selecting  the  best  ears  from 
the  load  or  crib  after  it  is  husked,  as  the  stalks  may  be 
considered  in  the  selection. 

Judging. — For  judging  seed  corn  in  schools  and  at  fairs, 

a  score  card  is  used.     The  following  one,  adopted  bj'  the 

Iowa   Corn   Growers'    Association,    is   characteristic.     The 

method  of  scoring  varies  somewhat  in  the  different  states. 

I.     General  Appearance  ...  25 

'   1.  Size  and  shape  of  ear. ...  10 

2.  Filling  of  butts  and  tips..  5 

3.  Straightness  of  rows 5 

4.  Uniformity  of  kernels..  . .  5 

II.     Productiveness 60 

1.  Maturity 25 

2.  Vitality 25 

3.  Shelling  percentage 10 

Questions: 

1.  When  should  seed  corn  be  selected,  and  why? 

2.  What  are  some  of  the  advantages  of  selecting  seed  corn  in 
the  field  from  the  standing  stalk  over  selecting  from  the  load  or  crib? 

3.  For  what  reasons  would  you  select  ears  that  are  sound,  with 
kernels  tight  on  the  cob? 

Arithmetic: 

1.  A  bushel  of  seed  com  is  worth  $3.00  and  will  plant  six  acres. 
What  is  the  cost  of  seed  per  acre? 

2.  A  fair  sized  ear  of  corn  will  weigh  about  10  ozs.  What  part  of 
a  pound  does  it  weigh?  How  many  such  ears  of  corn  in  a  bushel?  (A 
bushel  of  ear  corn  weighs  72  lbs.) 

3.  A  boy  selects  200  10-oz.  ears  of  seed  corn  in  one  day.  How 
many  bushels  does  he  save?    How  much  is  it  worth  at  $3.00  per  bushel? 

STORING  SEED  CORN 

T6  Keep  Germ  Uninjured. — We  have  learned  (page  57) 
that  every  kernel  of  corn  contains  an  embyro  or  germ,  which 
is  a  very  small,  live  corn  plant.  If  the  kernel  is  to  be  of 
any  value  as  seed,  this  germ  must  be  kept  alive  and  strong. 

6— 


III.     Breed  Type 15 

1.  Size  and  shape  of  ear. ...  5 

2.  Size,    shape,  and  dent  of 
kernel 5 

3.  Color  of  grain 2 

4.  Color  of  cob 2 

5.  Arrangement  of  rows.  ...  1 

Total 100 


82  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

This  little  plantlet,  or  germ,  is  very  similar  to  any  plant. 
Freezing,  under  certain  conditions  of  moisture,  will  kill  it. 
This  germ  can  stand  freezing  only  when  quite  dry,  as  when 
in  this  condition  it  is  dormant.  Trees  and  other  plants 
that  live  from  year  to  year  are  very  liable  to  be  killed  by 
cold  winter  weather,  if  kept  growing  until  late  in  the  fall. 
Under  normal  conditions  such  plants  stop  growing  several 
weeks  before  cold  weather  sets  in;  which  gives  them  a  chance 
to  ''harden  up"  or,  as  we  might  say,  "ripen."  It  is  evident, 
then,  that,  if  we  would  keep  our  seed  corn  in  good  condi- 
tion, it  must  be  so  handled  as  to  prevent  injury  to  the  germ 
in  each  kernel. 

Keep  Dry. — The  first  essential  is  to  select  the  seed  ears 
before  they  have  a  chance  to  freeze  in  the  field,  for  many 
times  the  corn  may  not  become  sufficiently  ripe  to  be  thor- 
oughly dry;  and  if  not  dry,  freezing  injures  the  germ.  After 
the  husk  has  been  removed,  the  ear  will  dry  out  rapidly, 
if  placed  where  it  has  an  opportunity  to  do  so.  Seedsmen 
appreciate  the  necessity  of  drying  seed  corn  immediately, 
and  they  store  it  in  a  room  in  such  a  way  that  air  can  circu- 
late about  it  freely  and  thus  carry  off  the  moisture.  They 
very  often  use  artificial  heat,  as  stove  or  furnace  heat,  to 
assist  in  this  drying  operation. 

Storing. — ^A  farmer,  as  a  rule,  saves  only  a  small 
amount  of  corn  and  cannot  afford  a  ::'pccial  storehouse  for 
it.  Probably  the  most  satisfactory  way  of  drying  corn  and 
keeping  it  dry,  on  the  farm,  is  to  store  it  in  the  attic  over 
the  kitchen.  Here  ventilation  can  be  supplied  by  opening 
windows,  and  the  heat  from  the  kitchen  stove  assists  in 
drying  out  the  corn  and  in  keeping  it  dry.  A  basement  in 
which  there  is  a  furnace,  so  that  the  corn  will  be  kept  dry 
and  so  that  there  will  be  good  ventilation  is  also  a  very 
good  place  for  seed  corn.  Where  one  does  not  have  these 
facilities  or  has  more  corn  than  one  can  store  in  an  attic  or 
dry  basement  satisfactorily,  it  may  be  placed  on  a  barn 
floor  or  in  a  vacant  room  in  the  house  or  other  building.  It 
should  not  be  piled  over  eight  to  ten  inches  deep,  as  it  may 
heat  or  sweat,  if  piled  deeper.  Good  circulation  of  air 
should  be  supplied,  as  this  aids  in  drying  the  corn,  and  it 
is  very  essential  that  it  be  .thoroughly  dried  before  cold 


CULTIVATED  CROPS  t« 

weather.  If  com  is  thoroughly  dried  and  kept  dry  it  will 
stand  freezing;  but  it  is  much  better  if  it  can  be  kept  where 
the  temperature  is  slightly  above  freezing. 

Seed  corn  should  never  be  placed  above  a  stable  in 
which  animals  are  kept,  or  over  a  bin  of  grain,  as  the  steam 
and  breath  from  the  animals,  or  the  steam  that  may  rise 
from  a  bin  of  grain,  if  it  heats  even  slightly,  will  keep  corn 
moist  enough  to  greatly  reduce  the  vitality  of  the  germ. 

Good  Seed  Essential. — A  kernel  of  corn  is  a  very  little 
thing,  but  it  is  a  very  important  factor  in  the  production 
of  good  yields.  Very  httle  time  is  necessary  to  select  and 
care  for  all  the  seed  corn  needed  on  the  average  farm  and 
few  farmers  can  afford  to  neglect  this  part  of  the  business. 

Neglecting  to  save  and  properly  care  for  seed  corn  may 
save  one  or  two  days'  time  in  the  fall,  but  it  may  also  mean 
that  poor  seed  com  or  com  not  well  adapted  to  one's  condi- 
tions will  have  to  be  planted  the  next  year.  Poor  seed 
com  means  a  partial  or  total  loss  of  the  corn  crop,  which 
may  result  in  a  very  great  financial  loss. 
Questions: 

1.  What  win  injure  the  germ  in  a  kernel  of  com? 

2.  Why  should  one  take  seed  com  in  from  the  field  before  frost?" 

3.  How  do  seedsmen  store  corn,  and  why? 

4.  How  may  farmers  store  their  seed  com? 
Arithmetic: 

1.  If  it  requires  20  ears  of  com  tc  plant  an  acre,  how  many  ea^«. 
are  required  to  plant  40  acres? 

2.  If  a  man  can  select  800  ears  of  com  in  2  days,  how  much  will 
it  cost  him  to  gather  the  800  ears,  if  his  time  is  worth  $2.00  per  day? 

3.  How  many  bushels  of  com  in  800  ears  of  corn  weighing 
10  oz.  each  (72  lbs.  per  bushel)?  How  much  is  it  worth  at  $3.00  per 
bushel? 

METHODS  OF  STORING  SEED  CORN 

Dr3ring. — Free  circulation  of  air  about  seed  corn  is  neces- 
sary to  dry  it  out,  consequently  many  devices  have  been 
used  for  storing  it  easily,  quickly  and  in  such  a  way  that 
this  end  will  be  accomplished. 

The  old  practice,  of  braiding  several  ears  together  by 
the  husks  and  hanging  them  up,  is  a  satisfactory  way  to 
keep  the  com,  but  requires  a  great  deal  of  unnecessary  labor. 

A  Simple  Device. — A  veiy  simple  and  practical  device 
for  putting  up  seed  corn  is  illustrated  in  Figure  34.,    This. 


84 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


device  is  called  a  ''corn  tree."  Any  boy  who  can  use  a  saw 
and  hammer  can  make  one  in  a  short  time.  To  make  it, 
saw  a  2  X  4,  or  better,  a  4  x  4  off  five  or  six  feet  long.  To 
the  bottom  end  of  this  spike  a  plank 
about  12  inches  square,  to  form  a  base 
sufficiently  large  so  the  tree  will  stand 
firmly  erect  on  the  floor.  It  is  well 
to  put  some  short  braces  from  the 
edges  of  the  plank  up  to  the  4  x  4  to 
stiffen  it.  A  row  of  finishing  nails,  nails 
with  small  heads,  are  driven  in  each 
side,  of  the  4x4  and  about  2}^  inches 
apart.  An  ear  of  corn  is  easily  stuck 
on  each  nail  by  jamming  it  on  butt 
first.  The  nail  sticks  into  the  pith  of 
the  corn  cob.  This  tree  may  be  placed 
in  the  attic  or  any  other  convenient 
place  where  the  corn  will  be  kept  dry. 
If  the  tree  is  six  feet  high,  it  will 
hold  about  100  ears,  or  enough  to 
plant  about  five  acres.  If  one  wishes 
to  put-  more  corn  on  the  tree,  the 
corners  of  the  4x4  may  be  beveled  off, 
making  it  eight-sided.  There  will  then 
be  room  for  eight  rows  of  corn.  Thus 
a  tree  six  feet  high  will  hold  200  ears. 
It  is  well  to  plane  the  4x4  smooth,  so 
that  numbers  may  be  placed  at  the  base 
of  each  nail,  thus  making  it  easy  to 
number  the  ears,  if  one  wishes  to  test 
each  ear  for  germination. 

The  double  string  method  is  Hke- 
wise  a  very  practical  means  of  putting 
up  seed  corn.  Take  a  piece  of  bind- 
ing twine  about  fourteen  feet  long. 
Tie  the  two  ends  together.  Then 
string  up  the  corn  as  indicated  in  Figure  35.  The 
strings  with  from  ten  to  fourteen  ears  of  corn  in  each  are 
easily  handled  and  may  be  hung  from  the  rafters  or  other 
convenient  places. 


Figure  34. — A  simple 
device  for  putting 
up  seed  corn  to  dry. 


CULTIVATED  CROPS 


85 


Slatted   Shelves.  — 

Strips  of  timber  1  x  4  or 
2x4  stood  on  end  with 
lath  nailed  on  either  side 
to  form  shelves  make  a 
very  good  means  of  put- 
ting up  seed  corn.  This 
method  is  often  used  by- 
seedsmen  and  permits  of 
storing  in  good  condition 
a  large  amount  of  seed 
corn  in  a  comparatively 
small  space. 

Patented  Cora  Hang- 
ers.— There  are  numerous 
patented  seed  corn  hangers 
on  the  market.  Most  of 
them  are  good  and  afford 
a  very  satisfactory  means 
of  putting  up  seed  corn. 
The  only  objection  to 
them   is  the    cost.    Very 

Figure  35.    Showing  the  double  string  method    gOOd  wire  SCCd  COm  haug- 
of  storing  seed  corn.  ^^.g     ^^y     j^g     j^^^q    f^^^ 

electric  weld  woven  wire  fencing.  Your  state  Experiment 
Station  will  furnish  you  more  complete  information  about 
making  any  of  these  seed  corn  hangers. 

Wire  Baskets. — Long,  slender  wire  baskets  are  very 
easily  made  of  poultry  netting  or  other  closely  woven  fenc- 
ing. The  two  ends  of  a  strip  of  fencing  three  to  five  feet 
long  are  fastened  together,  and  a  board  or  another  piece 
of  the  netting  put  in  for  the  bottom.  Such  a  basket  will 
hold  considerable  corn,  and  hold  it  in  such  a  way  as  to  allow 
it  to  dry  readily.  These  baskets  are  preferable  to  the 
other  methods  given  above  only  when  a  large  amount  of 
seed  corn  is  to  be  stored. 

Questions: 

1.  Why  is  a  good  circulation  of  air  about  seed  corn  necessary? 

2.  Describe  a  corn  tree. 

3.  What  can  you  say  of  wire  baskets  for  storing  seed  com? 


g<  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Arithmetic: 

1.  How  man  J'  feet  of  lumber  in  a  piece  of  4  x  4  six  feet  long? 
How  much  is  it  worth  at  $30  per  thousand  feet. 

2.  If  it  takes  about  2  hours  to  make  a  corn  tree,  how  much  does 
it  cost  for  labor,  if  the  boy's  time  is  worth  6c  per  hour? 

3.  If  it  takes  14  ft.  of  twine  to  hang  up  10  ears  of  corn,  by  the 
double  string  method,  how  many  feet  will  it  take  to  hang  up  200  ears 
of  corn?  How  much  will  it  cost,  if  twine  is  worth  8c  per  poundf  (500 
feet  per  p)ound.) 

CORN  FOR  SILAGE 

Com  silage  is  being  used  throughout  the  Com  Belt 
in  ever  increasing  amounts.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
corn  is  the  surest  crop  that  is  grown  in  that  section  of  the 
country.  The  corn  crop  is  more  nearly  controlled  by  the 
farmer,  and  less  likely  to  be  injured  by  drouth,  hot  wind, 
insect  pests,  diseases  and  hail  than  such  crops  as  grass  or 
grain.  This  advantage  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  com  crop 
is  cultivated  and  may  be  kept  growing  well  when  the  dry 
weather  or  hot  winds  destroy  or  greatly  reduce  the  hay  or 
grain  crop. 

Live  stock  can  not  be  profitably  kept  without  an  assured 
supply  of  suitable  feed.  Where  silage  is  not  available  it 
is  often  necessary  to  sell  off  a  large  part  of  the  stock  in  dry 
years,  because  the  pastures  are  short  or  because  not  enough 
hay  was  produced  to  winter  them.  With  a  silo  full  of  good 
com  silage  one  can  be  reasonably  sure  of  feed  for  stock 
either  winter  or  summer. 

Feeding  Value  of  Silage. — In  silage  all  the  nutrients, 
produced  in  the  corn  crop,  both  in  the  ear  and  in  the  stalk, 
are  saved.  Dry  com  stalks  make  fairly  good  feed,  but 
usually  half  of  the  stalks  are  left  uneaten  by  the  stock. 
These  stalks  are  not  only  wasted  but  are  troublesome  in 
the  yard  or  barn.  Good  silage  is  much  more  palatable 
and  relished  more  by  cattle  than  dry  stalks.  Not  only 
are  more  of  the  stalks  eaten  in  the  form  of  silage,  but,  because 
the  silage  is  relished  better,  a  larger  part  of  that  eaten  is 
digested.  There  is  no  way  known  by  which  a  large  part 
of  the  whole  corn  plant  can  be  made  more  palatable  for 
Uve  stock  than  in  silage.  Silage,  because  it  is  succulent 
(juicy),  comes  more  nearly  furnishing  summer  conditions, 
for  stock  in  the  winter  than  any  other  farm  feed. 


CULTIVATED  CR0P8 


87 


Com  for  Silage. — When  silos  were  first  used  corn  was 
put  into  them  quite  green.  It  was  found  that  this  silage 
was  very  sour,  and  sometimes  animals  did  not  like  it,  or,  if 
they  did  eat  much  of  it,  it  did  not  agree  with  them.  It  has 
been  found,  since  silage  came  into  more  common  use,  that 
corn  must  be  really  ripe  or  mature  when  it  is  cut  and  put  into 
the  silo,  if  first-class  silage  is  to  result.  Now  farmers 
usually  grow  for  silage  just  the  same  variety  of  corn  that 


Figure  36. — A  good  stand  of  corn  for  silage. 

they  grow  for  ears.  They  plant  it  at  about  the  same  time 
in  the  spring,  and  cultivate  it  in  the  usual  way.  Corn  for 
silage  is  generally  planted  about  50  per  cent  more  thickly 
than  for  ears.  It  is  more  commonly  planted  in  drills  than 
in  check  rows.  It  may  be  planted  in  check  rows,  if  desired. 
Time  to  Cut. — The  most  important  thing  about  getting 
good  silage  is  the  time  of  cutting  the  corn.  There  are  no 
reliable  rules  to  go  by,  because  in  wet  years  conditions  are 
quite  different  than  in  dry  years.  In  wet  years  the  ears 
of  corn  may  be  entirely  ripe,  while  the  stalks  and  leaves 
are  still  green.  In  dry  years  the  stalks  and  leaves  may  be 
quite  dry  before  the  ears  mature.  A  crop  of  corn  increases 
in  feeding  value  up  until  the  time  it  is  mature.  It  is,  there- 
fore, desirable  to  have  the  corn  mature  when  cut  for  silage; 


88  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

but  it  must  be  cut  while  the  stalks  are  still  green  enough 
and  have  enough  sap  in  them  so  the  silage  will  pack  down 
well  in  the  silo.  The  ideal  condition  in  which  to  cut  corn 
for  the  silo  is  when  the  ears  are  nicely  ripe  and  the  stalks 
and   leaves   are   still   green. 

Cutting  Silage. — Corn  for  silage  is  usually  cut  in  the 
field  with  a  corn  binder,  loaded  at  once  on  wagons  and 
hauled  to  the  silage  cutter.  Here  it  is  cut  into  short  lengths, 
from  %  to  ^  inch  in  length,  and  elevated  into  the  silo. 
One  or  two  men  are  kept  in  the  silo  while  it  is  being  filled, 
to  keep  the  silage  well  packed.  It  is  important  to  pack  the 
silage  thoroughly  so  as  to  crowd  out  as  much  air  as  possible. 
Air  in  silage  causes  it  to  spoil.  Silage  is  kept  in  a  silo  because 
the  silo  keeps  the  air  out.  The  machinery  for  cutting  silage 
is  quite  expensive,  so  it  is  advisable,  whenever  possible, 
for  several  farmers  to  co-operate  in  buying  an  outfit. 
Questions': 

1.  Why  is  silage  and  especially  corn  silage  important  on  live 
stock  farms? 

2.  By  what  means  may  the  largest  proportion  of  the  corn  crop 
be  saved  for  feed?     Why? 

3.  How  should  com  be  grown  for  silage,  and  when  cut? 
Arithmetic: 

1.  If  it  costs  $20  per  acre  to  grow  and  store  silage,  how  much 
does  it  cost  per  ton,  if  there  is  a  yield  of  9  tons  per  acre? 

2.  Compared  with  bran  at  $25  per  ton,  silage  is  worth  $3.75  in 
feeding  value.     How  much  is  an  acre  of  silage  yielding  9  tons  worth? 

3.  .If  a  silage-cutting  outfit  can  cut  75  tons  of  silage  per  day, 
how  many  days  would  be  required  to  fill  six  100-ton  silos? 

THE  POTATO  CROP 

IMPORTANCE,  VARIETIES,  SEED 

Importance. — Since  potatoes  are  a  side  issue  on  many 
farms  they  are  often  grown  without  receiving  the  care 
necessary  to  insure  a  successful  crop.  A  great  deal  of  work 
is  required  to  grow  an  acre  of  potatoes,  hence  the  importance 
of  fitting  the  soil  and  caring  for  the  crop,  so  that  a  good  yield 
may  be  expected.  A  fair  crop  of  potatoes  is  worth  $40  per 
acre.  A  fair  crop  of  grain  is  worth  $10.00  per  acre.  Care 
in  preparing  the  soil  so  as  to  increase  the  yield  10  per  cent 
means  an  increase  in  value  of  $4.00  in  the  potato  crop  and 
but  $1.00  in  the  grain  crop.     Thus,  when  a  crop  that  brings 


CULTIVATED  CROPS 


S9 


a  comparatively  large  income  per  acre  is  raised,  one  can 
afford  to  put  more  expense  on  fertilizing  or  preparing  the 
soil  or  on  other  operations,  as  cultivating,  etc.,  than  when 
crops  yielding  less  in  money  value  are  grown. 

Varieties. — The  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, Bulletin  176  (William  Stuart),  classifies  the  varieties 
as  follows :  Early :  Cobbler,  Triumph,  Early  Michigan,  Rose, 
Early  Ohio,  Hebron.  Late:  Burbank,  Green  Mountain, 
Rural,  Pearl,  Peachblow. 

Seed. — About  ten  bushels  of  seed  potatoes  are  required 
to  plant  an  acre.  The  best  seed  potatoes  are  secured  by 
selecting  them  from  hills  in  which  there  are  large  numbers 
of  uniform  and  desirable  potatoes,  rather  than  from  hills 
with  some  large  and  some  small  ones.  See  Figure  39.  Of 
course  such  selection  cannot  be  made  in  the  spring.  So, 
if  one  did  not  make  the  selection  in  the  fall  at  digging  time, 


^^^W 

<^.        »*  M  i^A  -"^ifci        j^.^^ 

l^^^^k^^^^ 

''^^^aH^^H^IJ^^^^^^^^H 

'^^H 

^H^tf''^ 

^^BHl^^^^ 

'  j^. ,.' ^■HHHHHI 

Figure  37. — A  potato  field.     Note  weedless,  straight  rows. 

the  next  best  thing  is  to  select  good,   smooth,   uniform, 
shallow-eyed  potatoes  from  the  stock  at  hand. 

Prevent  Seed  from  Sprouting. — Potatoes  are  likely  to 
begin  to  sprout  as  soon  as  the  weather  gets  warm.  This 
sprouting  is  undesirable,  as  the  sprouts  take  nourishment 
which  should  be  saved  to  nourish  the  young  plant  when 
started  in  the  field.    Keep  the  seed  in  as  cool  a  place  as 


90 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


possible  without  freezing  it,  and  where  it  is  dry.  It  is  a 
good  plan  to  keep  seed  potatoes  in  baskets  or  slatted  boxes 
piled  up  in  a  cool  cellar  so  that  the  air  can  circulate  freely 
about  them. 

Scab. — The  rough  blotches  on  the  surface  of  potatoes 
are  called  scab.  The  disease  is  caused  by  certain  spores  or 
seeds,  just  the  same  as  diphtheria  or  other  contagious  dis- 
eases are  caused  by  germs.  To  prevent  scab  the  spores  of 
the  disease  must  be  destroyed.  The  spores  may  live  over 
winter  in  the  soil  on  which  scabby  potatoes  were  grown  the 
year  before.  They  may  get  into  the  soil  with  manure  from 
animals  that  have  been  fed  scabby  potatoes,  or  they  may 


Figure  38. — A  manure  spreader. 

be  on  the  seed  planted.  The  latter  is  the  most  common 
way  of  spreading  the  disease,  and,  as  the  seed  is  very  easily 
treated  to  prevent  scab,  there  is  very  little  excuse  for  getting 
scabby  potatoes  in  this  way.  Formalin  is  a  liquid  which 
may  be  purchased  at  any  drug  store  for  from  twenty-five 
to  fifty  cents  per  pint.  A  pint  mixed  with  thirty-five  gal- 
lons of  water  makes  a  solution  which  will  destroy  the  scab 
spores  on  seed  potatoes,  if  they  are  soaked  in  it  for  two 
hours.  Treat  for  scab  before  cutting  the  potatoes.  If  cut 
first,  some  of  the  pieces  may  stick  together  and  the  spores 
in  between  will  not  be  reached  by  the  solution. 


CULTIVATED  CROPH  tl 

There  are  several  other  common  diseases  affecting  pota- 
toes.  These  are  quite  easily  controlled,  if  one  is  familiar 
with  them.  Every  potato  grower  should  be  thoroughly 
informed  regarding  potato  diseases  and  their  control.  Write 
to  your  experiment  station  for  full  information. 

Cutting  Seed  Potatoes. — Ebcperiments  have  proved  that 
rather  good  sized  pieces  give  larger  yields  than  small  pieces. 
It  is  well  to  cut  the  pieces  to  about  1  oz.  in  size,  being  sure 
to  get  at  least  one  good  eye  in  each  piece.  The  large  pieces 
furnish  more  food  for  the  plants  until  they  get  their  roots 
started  than  do  the  smaller  pieces.  Sometimes  whole  halves 
are  planted,  and  often  pieces  having  at  least  two  eyes. 

Questions: 

1.  Why  can  a  farmer  afford  to  spend  more  time  preparii^  an 
acre  of  soil  for  potatoes  than  for  grain? 

2.  How  should  seed  potatoes  be  kept  during  the  winter? 

3.  How  does  sprouting  injure  seed  potatoes? 

4.  How  is  the  disease  known  as  scab  spread?  How  is  it  treated?^ 
Arithmetic: 

1.  If  potatoes  are  planted  in  rows  36  in.  apart,  with  hills  16  in. 
apart  in  the  row,  how  many  sq.  ft.  of  space  will  each  hill  occupy? 
How  many  hills  will  there  be  on  an  acre?  (There  are  43,560  sq.  ft.  in 
an  acre.) 

2.  If  there  are  10,890  hills  of  potatoes  on  an  acre  and  one  1  oz. 
piece  is  planted  in  each  hill,  how  many  bushels  of  seed  will  be  required 
to  plant  an  acre? 

3.  If  there  are  10,890  hills  of  potatoes  on  an  acre,  how  many 
pounds  must  each  hill  yield  to  produce  300  bushels  per  acre? 

PLANTING  AND  CULTIVATING  POTATOES 

The  Soil  and  Its  Preparation. — Potatoes  require  rich, 
moist,  mellow  soil;  and,  as  the  tubers  must  grow  under 
ground  to  protect  them  from  the  sun,  it  is  well  to  have  the 
soil  mellow  to  quite  a  depth,  six  or  eight  inches.  It  is 
evident  that  the  land  must  be  plowed  to  a  good  depth. 
Fall  plowing  is  preferable,  as  it  gives  the  soil  a  chance  to 
become  firm  and  settled  and  be  acted  upon  by  the  weather, 
spring  plowing,  unless  very  thoroughly  disked  and  harrowed, 
is  likely  to  be  too  loose  and  to  dry  out.  It  is  also  more 
likely  to  be  lumpy. 

Clover  sod,  or  land  that  has  grown  clover  the  previous 
year,  and  was  plowed  in  the  fall,  is  the  ideal  soil  for  pota- 
toes, especially  if  the  land  was  top-drsssed  with  manure 


92 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


before  it  was  plowed.  A  very  excellent  way  to  prepare 
such  land  is  to  top-dress  it  with  good  stable  manure  in  the 
fall  on  the  clover  sod  before  it  is  plowed.  Then  disk  it  to 
cut  up  the  sod  and  mix  the  manure  with  it.  Then  plow  in 
the  fall.     This  treatment  gets  the  clover  sod  and  the  manure 

well  pulverized  and  mixed 
together  and  turned  un- 
der where  the  tubers 
are  to  grow.  It  insures 
them  a  rich,  mellow 
place.  If  soil  is  very 
light  and  sandy,  it 
would  be  better  to  plow 
the  land  in  the  fall 
without  manuring  it. 
Manure  it  during  the 
winter  or  spring  and 
disk  the  manure  in,  thus 
keeping  it  near  the  sur- 
face. 

If  land  has  been  treat- 
ed as  suggested  above, 
disking  and  harrowing 
it  a  few  times  in  the 
spring  will  put  it  in  excel- 
lent condition  for  plant- 
ing. 

If  the  land  has  not 
been  prepared  in  the  fall, 
then  the  same  manur- 
ing and  disking  should 
be  done  before  the  land 
is  plowed.  Then  plow, 
harrow  and  disk  until 
the  soil  is  well  packed 
down.  It  is  important  that  spring  plowing  be  well  harrow- 
ed to  assist  in  firming  it,  that  it  may  not  be  so  loose  as  to 
dry  out  too  quickly. 

Planting. — Potatoes  may  be  planted  from  early  spring 
to  early  summer.     Early  planting  is  usually  preferable  so 


Figure  39. — Types  of  potatoes.  1  is  a 
rough,  deep-eyed  type,  not  desirable  for 
any  purpose.  2.  A  good  type  of  Bur- 
bank.  3.  A  good  type  of  Carmen  No.  3. 
4.  A  good  type  of  early  Ohio.  Note 
smooth  surface  and  shallow  eyes  of  Nos. 
2,  3  and  4. 


CULTIVATED  CROPS  93 

that  they  will  have  a  chance  to  make  their  growth  before 
the  dry,  hot  weather  comes.  Potatoes  grow  better  in  rather 
cool  weather  when  the  soil  is  reasonably  moist.  They  are 
usually  planted  in  rows  about  36  inches  apart  and  the 
pieces  are  dropped  from  14  to  18  inches  apart  in  the  row. 
About  4  inches  is  a  good  depth  to  plant  them.  If  one 
has  a  horse  planter  it  is  a  very  easy  matter  to  plant  potatoes. 
There  are  also  satisfactory  hand  planters.  If  but  one  half 
an  acre  to  an  acre  is  raised,  as  is  the  case  on  most  farms, 
they  may  be  easily  and  well  planted  by  marking  the  land 
with  a  corn  marker,  then  plowing  a  furrow,  for  each  row, 
with  a  common  walking  plow  or  a  shovel  plow,  dropping 
the  seed  in  these  furrows  by  hand,  then  covering  with  a 
plow  or  by  harrowing  crosswise. 

Blind  Cultivation. — If  potatoes  are  planted  with  a  hand 
planter  or  by  dropping  into  furrows  as  suggested  above,  it 
is  a  good  plan  to  go  into  the  field  with  a  cultivator  after 
they  have  been  planted  a  few  days  and  give  the  plot  a 
good  cultivation.  This  is  called  bUnd  cultivation.  Set 
the  shovels  so  as  to  throw  the  dirt  on  the  row,  thus  making 
a  ridge  over  each  row.  Follow  this  every  few  days  by 
harrowing. 

Throwing  the  dirt  in  a  ridge  over  the  rows,  then  later 
leveling  it  off  with  the  harrow,  keeps  the  soil  mellow  over 
the  rows  and  prevents  weeds  from  starting,  making  it  much 
easier  to  keep  the  rov/s  clean. 

Cultivation  of  potatoes  should  continue  at  frequent 
intervals,  from  the  time  they  are  planted  until  the  vines 
cover  the  ground,  to  keep  down  weeds  and  to  check  the 
evaporation  of  moisture.  Potatoes  require  a  great  deal  of 
moisture,  and  a  lack  of  moisture  at  any  time  reduces  the 
yield.  As  in  cultivating  corn,  care  must  be  taken  not  to 
cultivate  deep  enough  to  injure  the  roots.  Except  when 
the  soil  is  cold  and  wet,  level  cultivation  is  preferable  to 
hilling. 

Spra3ring. — It  is  now  quite  impossible  to  grow  potatoes 
successfully  without  spraying  the  vines  one  or  more  times 
while  they  are  growing.  They  must  be  sprayed  both  for 
bugs  and  diseases.  A  spray  containing  Paris  green  or  other 
poison  to  kill  the  bugs  and  Bordeaux  mixture  or   other 


94  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

fungicide   to  check  the  blight   is  commonly   used.     This 
saves  time,  as  the  combined  spray  is  as  easily  applied  as  a 
single  purpose  spray,  and  is  quite  as  effective.     For  full 
particulars  write  to  your  State  Experiment  Station. 
Questions: 

1.  For  what  reasons  would  you  prefer  fall  plowing  for  potatoes. 

2.  Describe  a  good  method  of  preparing  clover  sod  for  potatoes. 

3.  How  are  ix)tatoes  planted?     How  cultivated? 
Arithmetic: 

1.  It  costs  35c.  per  acre  to  disk  land.  A  farmer  disks  his  potato 
field  twice  after  manuring  and  before  plowing.  What  must  be  ihe 
increased  yield  to  pay  for  the  extra  work  of  disking  twice,  if  potatoes 
are  worth  35c.  per  bushel? 

2.  It  costs  50c.  per  acre  more  to  plow  6  in.  deep  than  to  plow 
4  in.  deep.  How  much  does  one  get  for  his  extra  labor,  if  land  plowed 
6  in.  deep  yields  10  bus.  more  than  land  plowed  only  4  in.  deep,  if  pota- 
toes are  worth  35c.  per  bu.? 

3.  If  it  costs  50c.  per  acre  to  cultivate  potatoes,  how  much  must 
each  cultivation  increase  the  yield  to  pay  for  the  cultivation,  if  pota- 
toes are  worth  35c.  per  bushel? 

ROOT  CROPS 

Importance.— Root  crops,  such  as  mangels,  rutabagas, 
turnips,  stock  carrots  and  sugar  beets,  are  grown  quite 
generally  as  feed  for  stock.  They  are  especially  important 
on  farms  not  supplied  with  ensilage.  On  farms  where 
stock  equivalent  to  ten  cows  or  less  is  kept,  it  is  seldom 
practical  to  use  silage.  Good  stock  feeding  requires  that 
some  sort  of  succulent  feed  be  provided.  Root  crops  may 
be  grown  with  the  machinery  ordinarily  found  on  the  farm, 
and  do  not  require  an  expensive  building  for  storage.  For 
these  reasons  it  is  decidedly  practical  to  grow  root  crops 
on  farms  keeping  only  a  small  amount  of  stock,  if  the  stock 
is  an  important  factor  on  the  farm. 

Other  Uses. — Sugar  beets  are  grown  much  more  exten- 
sively for  the  manufacture  of  sugar  than  for  stock  feed. 
Rutabagas  and  turnips  are  grown  quite  extensively  as 
vegetables  for  human  food. 

Culture. — Root  crops  require  a  great  deal  of  hand  labor. 

On  this  account  it  is  important  that  they  be  planted  on 

very  rich  land  that  will  produce  a  heavy  yield.     Ten  tons 

per  acre  is  a  common  yield.     It  is  more  practical  to  have 

'  the  soil  so  rich  by  manuring  it,  and  in  such  fine  condition 


CULTIVATED  CROPS 


95 


by  thorough  cultivation,  that  yields  of  from  20  to  40  tons 
may  be  secured.  Deep  plowing,  preferably  in  the  fall,  to 
the  depth  of  from  8  to  12  inches  is  desirable  for  roots.   This 

should  be  followed  by 
very  thorough  disking 
the  following  spring.  The 
land  may  and  should  be 
disked  several  times  be- 
fore the  roots  are  plant- 
ed. Soon  after  corn- 
planting  is  best  time  to 
sow  roots  but  rutabagas 
and  turnips  may  be 
sown  as  late  as  midsum- 
mer. Root  crops  are 
usually  planted  in  drills 
from  24  to  30  inches 
apart,  with  6  or  8  seeds 
per  foot  of  drill.  Then 
later  the  plants  are 
thinned  so  that  they 
stand  from  6  to  8  inches 
apart  in  the  drill.  The 
cultivation  may  be  done 
by  wheel  hand  hoes 
when  the  plants  are  small 
and  later  by  horse  cultivators.  Some  hand  weeding,  thin- 
ning and  hoeing  must  always  be  done.  Clean  and  thorough 
cultivation  is  necessary. 

Harvesting. — Root  crops  must  be  harvested  before  there 
is  danger  of  freezing  weather.  Ordinary  white  frost  does 
not  injure  root  crops.  Root  diggers  may  be  used,  or  a 
furrow  plowed  with  a  common  plow  beside  a  row  of  roots 
greatly  reduces  the  labor  of  pulling.  Roots  must  be  topped 
usually  by  hand  and  stored  where  they  will  not  freeze  but 
where  the  temperature  is  comparatively  low. 
Questions: 

1.  Tell  if  you  can  why  the  crops  mentioned  in  this  lesson  are 
called  root  crops. 

2.  Under  what  conditions  is  it  advisable  to  grow  roots  for  stock 
feed? 


Figure  40. — Cutting  field  roots  for  feed. 


96 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


3.     Describe  a  good  method  of  growing  lOot  crops. 

Arithmetic: 

1.  If  a  farmer  has  ten  cows  and  wants  to  provide  each  cow  20 
lbs.  of  roots  per  day  for  200  days,  how  many  tons  of  roots  must  he 
produce? 

2.  If  a  farmer  keeps  40  mature  sheep  and  wishes  to  feed  each  2 
lbs.  of  roots  per  day  for  200  days,  how  many  tons  will  he  need? 

3.  If  roots  are  planted  in  rows  24  inches  apart  and  a  2-lb.  root 
produced  every  8  inches  in  the  row,  how  many  tons  would  be  produced 
per  acre? 

Exercises: 

1.  Visit  several  farms. 
Observe  how  and  where 
seed  corn  is  stored.  Ob- 
serve methods  used  to 
shell  seed  corn,  to  grade 
it,  and  to  test  it  for  germi- 
nation. 

2.  Soak  a  few  kernels 
of  corn  and  separate  each 
into  the  three  parts  (1) 
seed  coat;  (2)  embryo  or 
germ;  (3)  food  material. 
See  lesson  "Parts  of  a  ker- 
nel of  corn,"  pages  56 
and  57. 

3.  Examine  carefully  several  ears  of  corn  and  see  how  many 
rows  of  kernels  on  each  ear.  Do  they  all  have  the  same  number  of 
rows?  Do  the  ears  have  an  odd  number  of  rows  or  an  even  number? 
Examine  carefully  several  ears  of  corn  to  see  if  the  kernels  are  alike. 
Are  all  kernels  on  an  ear  of  corn  the  same  shape?  On  what  part 
of  the  ear  are  the  kernels  most  uniform?  Are  tip,  butt,  and  middle 
kernels  alike? 

4.  Examine  a  corn  planter  and  see  if  there  is  any  advantage  in 
having  seed  corn  graded  so  that  all  kernels  are  of  equal  size. 

5.  Arrange  either  at  home  or  at  school  to  test  a  number  of  ears 
of  corn.  Which  method  do  you  like  best  for  testing  seed  corn,  the 
rag  doll,  or  the  box  tester? 

6.  Go  into  a  field  of  corn  where  the  plants  are  two  or  more  feet 
high  and  with  your  hands  dig  carefully  around  a  hill  of  corn  to  find 
out  which  way  the  roots  grow,  Whether  straight  downward  or  out 
sidewise.  Do  you  think  corn  might  be  injured  by  deep  cultivation? 
If  so,   how? 

7.  Try  at  least  four  different  ways  of  hanging  up  seed  corn  to  dry. 


Figure  41. — Sugar  beets 


CHAPTER  VI 
HAY  AND  PASTURE  CROPS 

HAY  CROP 

Importance. — According  to  the  Bureau  of  Statistics,  the 
annual  production  of  hay  in  the  United  States  from  1902 
to  1911  averaged  60,737,000  tons,  grown  on  42,557,000 
acres,  and  valued  at  $624,664,000,  an  average  of  $10.28 
per  ton.  The  total  amount  was  slightly  in  excess  of  the 
average  annual  value  of  cotton  or  wheat  for  the  same. years. 
The  average  acre  value  was  $14,72.  In  addition  to  its 
money  value,  the  hay  crop  bears  such  an  important  relation 
to  soil  productivity  and  to  live  stock  enterprises  that  at 
least  some  of  the  principles  of  its  growth  and  value  should 
be  thoroughly  understood  by  every  tiller  of  the  soil. 

Advantages. — The  value  and  advantage  of  the  hay  crop 
is  often  underestimated.  Probably  you  have  noticed  that 
it  is  not  necessary  to  plow  and  prepare  the  land  for  a  hay 
crop  as  is  done  for  other  crops.  The  grass  seed  is  sown 
with  some  preceding  grain  crop.  So  seeding  of  hay  costs 
nothing  but  for  the  seed. 

If  you  go  out  into  a  good  meadow  of  tame  kay  at  hay- 
ing time,  you  will  find  very  few,  if  any,  weeds;  and  if  there 
are  weeds,  they  will  be  cut  with  the  hay  crop  before  they 
produce  seed,  as  hay  is  usually  cut  before  most  of  the  com- 
mon weeds  produce  seed.  For  this  reason  the  hay  crop 
helps  to  clean  the  land  of  weeds. 

Another  advantage  is  that  a  hay  crop  makes  the  soil 
better  for  succeeding  crops,  which  is  not  true  of  grain  or 
corn  crops.  If  there  is  clover  in  the  hay,  it  adds  nitrogen 
to  the  soil;  and  any  hay  crop  increases  the  amount  of  vege- 
table matter  in  the  soil,  because  it  has  a  heavier  root  system 
than  have  any  of  the  other  classes  of  crops.  You  can  prove 
this  by  trying  to  pull  a  handful  of  grass  in  the  meadow  and 
a  handful  of  grain  in  the  grain  field. 

Cost. — There  is  no  other  kind  of  winter  feed  grown  on 
the  farm  that  can  be  produced  so  cheaply  in  proportion 


98  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE. 

to  its  feeding  value  as  hay.  Some  farmers  hesitate  to  devote 
much  of  their  land  to  growing  hay,  because  it  seems  to  bring 
in  less  money  per  acre  than  other  crops  appear  to  produce. 
The  fact  that  it  costs  much  less  per  acre  to  raise  hay  than 
to  raise  corn  or  any  of  the  grain  crops,  is  often  overlooked. 
The  following  table  shows  the  comparative  cost  of  growing 
an  oat  crop  and  a  hay  crop.  The  figures  are  averages  of 
accurate  records  on  eight  farms  covering  a  period  of  five 
years. 

Cost  per  Acre,  Exclusive  of  Rent,  of  Producing  Hay  and  Oats  oa 
Eight  Farms.    Average  for  Five  Years.* 

Hay— Timothy  and  Clover. 
First  Crop. 

Seed $  .410 

Mowing 432 

Raking 165 

Tedding 142 

Cocking  and  Spreading 177 

Hauling  in 1.097 

Machinery  Cost 1.171 

General  Expense .623 

Second  Crop.  4.217 

Mowing 405 

Raking 156 

Cocking  and  Spreading 218 

Hauling  in 738 

General  Expense 2.004 

Total  Cost 7,738 

Oats 

Seed 1.319 

Cleaning  Seed * 037 

Plowing 1.618 

Disking 397 

Dragging 340 

Seeding 313 

Cutting 473 

Twine 189 

Shocking. 193 

Stacking 772 

Threshing  (labor) 389 

Threshing  (cash) 720 

Machinery  cost 1.006 

General  Expense .804 

Total  Cost $8,570 

♦Minnesota  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  145. 


HAY  AND  PASTURE  CROPS 


99 


The  previous  table  shows  that  there  is  approximately 
twice  as  much  labor  and  expense  in  growing  an  oat  crop 
as  in  growing  a  hay  crop,  even  when  two  cuttings  of  hay 
are  made.  So  it  is  not  necessary  to  get  so  much  from  the 
hay  crop  as  from  the  grain  crop  to  make  as  large    profits. 

Rotation  of  Crops. — If  you  can  find  in  your  neighbor- 
iiood  a  timothy  and  clover  meadow  seeded  last  year,  and 
one  on  similar  land  that  has  been  seeded  down — that  is, 
raising  hay  for  several  years — ^you  will  see  that  the  new 


Figure  42. — ^Breaking  sod  with  a  traction  plow. 

meadow,  if  a  good  stand  has  been  secured,  will  give  a  larger 
yield  than  the  old.  Likewise  a  meadow  or  pasture  plowed 
up  will  usually  raise  a  larger  crop  of  corn  or  grain  than  will 
a  field  that  has  not  been  in  grass  for  several  years.  These 
facts  show  that  both  the  meadow  and  the  grain  and 
com  crops  will  yield  more  if  new  meadows  are  seeded 
each  year  and  old  ones  plowed  for  other  crops.  This  means 
rotation  of  crops,  and  illustrates  an  advantage  of  the  practice. 
Questions: 

1.  Name  some  of  the  advantages  of  the  hay  crop. 

2.  How  does  the  cost  of  raising  oats  and  hay  compare? 

3.  How  does  the  yield  of  hay  from  an  old  meadow  compare  with 
the  yield  from  a  newly  seeded  meadow. 

4.  What  can  you  say  of  the  rotation  of  crops? 


100  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Arithmetic: 

1.  One  acre  of  clover  and  timothy  will  produce  2  tons  of  hay. 
How  much  does  it  cost  per  ton,  if  it  cost  S6.22  per  acre  to  raise  it? 
How  much  does  it  cost  per  ton,  if  $4.00  per  acre  is  added  for  land  rent? 

2.  If  hay  yields  but  one  and  one  half  tons  per  acre,  how  much 
does  it  cost  per  ton,  if  it  costs  $6.22  per  acre  to  raise  it?  How  much 
does  it  cost  per  ton  if  $4.00  per  acre  is  added  for  land  rent? 

3.  If  clover  hay  is  worth  $8.00  per  ton  compared  with  bran  at 
$20.00  per  ton,  how  much  is  bran  worth  when  clover  hay  is  worth 
simply  the  cost  of  growing  it? 

CLOVER 

As  clover  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  field  crops,  it  is 
important  that  every  one  know  something  of  its  habits  and 
of  the  conditions  favorable  to  its  growth. 

Varieties. — There  are  several  varieties  of  clover,  but 
only  four  of  the  varieties  are  important  in  the  Central  West. 
These  are  Mammoth,  Medium  Red,  Alsike  and  White. 

Mammoth  Clover  is  very  much  like  medium  red.  In 
fact,  it  is  very  hard  to  distinguish  one  from  the  other.  The 
Mammoth  is  much  coarser  than  the  medium  red,  and  on 
that  account  does  not  make  so  good  a  quality  of  hay.  Its 
chief  value  is  as  a  green  crop  to  plow  under,  though  it  is 
often  used  for  hay,  pasture  or  seed. 

Medium  Red  is  easily  distinguished  from  alsike  and 
white  clover,  as  it  is  larger  and  each  leaflet  is  marked  by 
a  V  shaped,  lighter  colored  streak  near  its  center.  The 
red  blossoms  aid,  also,  in  distinguishing  this  variety  of, 
clover.  It  will  be  noticed  that  nearly  or  quite  all  the  stems 
of  this  clover  are  covered  with  fine  hair.  These  hairs  are 
objectionable,  as  they  have  a  tendency  to  gather  dust,  thus 
making  dusty  hay,  unless  very  carefully  cured.  It  is 
usually  a  biennial,  that  is,  as  a  rule,  it  lives  but  two  years. 
It  is  usually  sown  with  some  grain  crop,  called  a  nurse 
crop.  The  clover  plants  are  very  small  during  the  early 
part  of  summer,  and  do  not  grow  much  until  the  grain  crop 
is  cut.  During  the  fall  the  clover  grows  very  rapidly;  but 
it  does  not  produce  a  crop  until  the  next  year,  the  second 
year  of  its  growth,  when  it  produces  two  crops — two  hay 
crops  or  a  hay  and  a  seed  crop.  The  second  crop  is  the 
one  usually  saved  for  seed.  After  the  two  crops  are  cut, 
the  plants  usually  die,  as  they  have  lived  their  life.  An 
occasional  plant   may  live   over,   and   considerable   clover 


HAY  AND  PASTWR0  CRt>P& 


101 


may  appear  in  the  field  the  third  year;  but  this  is  largely 
due  to  seeds  formed  the  first  or  second  year  of  the  clover's 
growth,  or  to  clover  seeds  starting  that  failed  to  grow  the 
first  year.  This  variety  of  clover  is  especially  adapted  to 
rotation  pastures  and  meadows.     Considerable  trouble  is 

experienced  in  curing  this 
variety  of  hay,  as  the 
thick  stems  contain  so 
much  juice  that  in  trying 
to  dry  them  the  leaves, 
which  are  very  thin,  are 
liable  to  become  too  dry 
and  shatter  off  when  the 
hay  is  handled. 

Alsike  Clover  is  small- 
er than  medium  red  clo- 
ver, has  smaller,  more 
oblong  leaves  without 
white  markings,  and 
there  are  no  hairs  on  its 
stems.  The  blossoms  are 
smaller  and  fighter  col- 
ored, nearly  white  at 
first  and  later  pink. 
The  seed  is  much  smaller  and  darker  colored  than  the  seed 
of  medium  red.  Alsike  clover  makes  a  better  quafity  of 
hay  than  the  red  clover,  because  it  is  free  of  hairs  and  finer; 
but,  as  a  rule,  it  does  not  yield  so  much  on  upland.  It  is 
a  perennial,  that  is,  it  Uves  for  several  years  unless  some 
unfavorable  conditions  kill  it.  On  this  account  it  is  more 
valuable  for  permanent  pasture  or  meadow  than  the  medium 
red.  It  is  quite  well  adapted  for  low  wet  places,  as  it  will 
stand  more  water  than  the  red  clover. 

White  Clover  is  a  very  small,  low  growing  plant  with 
a  tendency  to  trail  along  on  the  ground.  It  has  small, 
nearly  round,  smooth  leaves  and  smooth  stems.  The  seed 
is  a  little  smaller  than  alsike  clover  seed  and  is  yellowish 
in  color.  It  is  a  perennial.  The  stems  creep  along  on  the 
ground  and  take  root  at  the  joints,  thus  starting  new  plants. 
It  spreads  in  this  way  as  well  as  by  the  seeds.     The  blossoms 


Figure  43. — Leaves  and  stems  of  clover. 
1.  Medium  red.  (Note  markings  on  leaf- 
lets, also  hairs  on  stems.)  2.  White. 
(Note  smooth  stem  and  small  leaflets.) 
3  Alsike.  (Note  smooth  stem  and  smooth 
leaflets  with  prominent  midrib.) 


102 


ELEME}iTPy  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


are  white,  and  they  can 
usually  be  seen  at  any 
time  during  the  summer 
from  June  1st  until  it 
freezes  up  in  the  fall. 
The  white  clover  is  of 
very  little  value  as  a  hay 
crop,  as  it  grows  too 
short.  It  is  common  on 
lawns  and  in  old  pas- 
tures and  is  a  valuable 
plant  for  such  places. 
Getting  a  Catch  of 
Clover.  —  Difficulty  is 
sometimes  experienced  in 
getting  a  good  catch  of 
clover.  As  clover  grows 
slowly  the  first  year  it 
is  sown,  the  grain  crop 
with  which  it  grows  is 
liable  to  crowd  it  pretty 
hard;  and  when  the 
grain  is  cut  the  hot  sun 
is  pretty  hard  on  the 
small  plants,  especially 
if  the  weather  is  dry. 
Clover  seed  should  be 
sown  only  on  a  fine,  mel- 
low rich,  well- prepared 
seed  bed.  Land  well 
manured,  planted  to  corn 
and  well  cultivated,  then  well  disked  the  following  spring, 
and  sown  to  grain,  is  in  fine  condition  for  clover  seed. 

If  clover  seed  is  sown  on  poor  land  the  chances  of  get- 
ting a  catch  are  greatly  increased  if  a  light  dressing  of  man- 
ure can  be  applied  soon  after  the  seed  is  sown. 
Questions: 

1.  Name  the  four  varieties  of  clover  common  in  the  Middle  West. 

2.  Which  two  are  very  much  aHke? 

3.  Describe  the  leaf,  stem  and  blossom  of  each  of  the  last  three. 

4.  What  are  annual,  biennial  and  perennial  plants? 


Figure  44. — Root  systems  of  alsike  and  white 
clover  plants.  1.  Alsike.  (Note  small 
taproot  and  comparatively  large  laterals.) 
2.  White.  (Note  creeping  stem  rooted  at 
different    places,    and    fine    fibrous    roots.) 


HAY  AND  PASTURE  CROPS 


103 


Arithmetic: 

1.  If  an  acre  of  clover  yields  3,500  lbs.  of  hay  at  the  first  ciop, 
and  a  bushel  of  seed  at  the  second  crop,  what  is  the  value  of  the  entire 
crop,  hay  $10  per  ton  and  clover  seed  $8  per  bushel? 

2.  If  an  acre  of  clover  yields  200  lbs.  of  seed,  what  is  its  value 
at  $8  per  bushel?     (60  lbs.  per  bu.) 

3-  If  clover  seed  is  worth  $8  per'  bushel,  what  is  its  value  per 
hundred  weight? 

CLOVER  ROOTS  AND  BACTERIA 

Medium  Red  Clover  Root. — An  examination  of  the 
roots  of  medium  red,  alsike  and  white  clover  will  show  con- 
siderable difference  in  them.  The  medium  red  clover  has 
a  large  taproot  (a  root  running  straight  down  in  the  soil). 
This  root  is  much  larger  and  longer  than  the  root  of  either 
of  the  other  clovers.     If  a  plant  is  dug  carefully  from  a 

well  drained  soil,  ^^his 
taproot  will  be  found  to 
extend  down  two,  and 
often  more,  feet;  which 
shows  that  this  clover 
gets  part  of  its  food 
from  the  subsoil.  It  has 
also  many  lateral  roots 
running  out  from  the 
taproot.  In  fact,  if  roots 
are  carefully  taken  up, 
it  will  be  seen  that  there 
is  nearly  as  much  plant 
below  as  above  ground. 
On  this  account  medium 
red  clover  is  one  of  the 
very  best  crops  to  grow 
to  add  vegetable  matter 
to  the  soil. 

Alsike  clover  roots  are 
considerably  smaller  than 
those  of  medium  red 
clover.  In  many  plants 
the  taproot  is  not  plainly 

Figure    45. — Root    system    of    medium    red  ^„  :^  ^^+ »^,,«V.  !«»,«./-.« 

dover.     (Note  large  taproot,  lateral  roots  SCCU  Or  IS  UOt  mUCh  larger 

and  nodules  caused  by  nitrogen-gathering  than    the     flbrOUS    lOOtS. 
bacteria.) 


104  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

The  roots  of  the  alsike  clover  extend  into  the  soil  to  consider- 
able depth,  however,  thus  enabling  the  plants  to  draw  on 
the  subsoil  to  some  extent  for  plant  food.  This  clover  also 
adds  a  large  amount  of  vegetable  matter  to  the  soil  by  its 
roots.  Both  alsike  and  medium  red  are  very  beneficial  to 
heavy  soils,  by  opening  them  and  letting  in  air  when  the 
roots  decay.  They  are  beneficial  to  sandy  soils  by  adding 
large  amounts  of  vegetable  matter,  thus  making  the  soils 
capable  of  holding  more  moisture. 

White  clover  roots  are  very  small  and  fibrous.  No 
taproots  are  found,  and  the  fibrous  roots  do  not  go  nearly 
so  deep  as  the  roots  of  the  other  clovers.  The  plants  grow 
so  thickly,  owing  to  their  habit  of  spreading,  that  they 
thoroughly  cover  the  ground  and  keep  the  surface  soil  well 
supplied  with  vegetable  matter. 

Clover  Adds  Nitrogen  to  the  Soil. — Clover  possesses, 
beside  its  heavy  root  system,  another  feature  which  makes 
it  a  valuable  crop  to  improve  the  soil.  If  a  clover  plant  is 
carefully  dug  from  the  soil,  small  bunches  or  nodules  about 
the  size  of  an  ordinary  pin  head  will  be  seen  on  the  roots. 
See  Figure  45.  These  are  caused  by  bacteria.  Bacteria 
are  a  very  low  form  of  plant  life.  They  are  unable  to  live 
from  the  soil  as  higher  plants  do,  but  must  depend  upon 
plant  or  animal  substances  to  supply  them  with  organic 
matter.  Disease  germs,  the  germs  that  cause  milk  to  sour, 
the  germs  that  cause  decomposition  or  rotting,  etc.,  are 
also  bacteria.  Some  bacteria  live  on  dead  matter,  others 
on  live  matter.  The  latter  are  called  parasites.  The 
bacteria  causing  the  nodules  on  clover  roots  are  in  a  sense 
parasites,  but  in  this  case  they  are  beneficial;  they  do  some- 
thing for  the  clover  plant  that  it  is  unable  to  do  for  itself. 
All  plants  require  a  large  amount  of  nitrogen  for  food.  A 
very  large  proportion  of  the  air  is  free  nitrogen.  Our  com- 
mon field  crops  are  unable  to  make  use  of  this  nitrogen; 
but  clover,  alfalfa,  peas,  beans  and  other  plants  belonging 
to  the  family  called  legumes  have  the  habit,  which  no  other 
class  of  plants  has,  of  forming  a  sort  of  partnership  rela- 
tion with  these  bacteria  and  through  them  are  enabled  to 
draw  upon  the  nitrogen  of  the  air.  These  nitrogen-gather- 
ing bacteria  have  the  power  to  absorb  the  nitrogen  from 


HAY  AND  PASTURE  CROPS  105 

the  air  and  to  pass  it  on  to  the  plants  on  which  they  are 
growing.  In  this  way  a  soil  lacking  in  nitrogen  may  be 
made  richer  in  this  element  by  growing  a  legume  crop. 
This  is  true  even  though  the  crop  be  removed  from  the 
field,  as  the  roots  and  stubble  left  are  rich  in  nitrogen. 
Nitrogen,  when  bought  in  commercial  fertilizers,  costs 
about  18c.  per  pound.  A  farmer,  by  growing  clover  or 
some  other  legume  crop,  can  add  enough  nitrogen  to  the 
soil  to  grow  several  crops  of  corn  or  grain,  besides  his 
legume  crop. 
Questions: 

1.  Which  variety  of  clover,  medium  red  or  alsike,  has  the  heavier 
root  system? 

2.  In  what  ways  is  a  clover  crop  beneficial  to  the  soil? 

3.  What  enables  clover  and  other  plants  belonging  to  the  same 
family  to  make  use  of  the  free  nitrogen  in  the  air? 

Arithmetic: 

1.  What  is  the  value  of  150  lbs.  of  nitrogen  at  18c.  per  pound? 
(Note:     An  acre  of  clover  may  add  150  lbs.  of  nitrogen  to  the  soil.) 

2.  How  many  crops  of  wheat,  each  crop  removing  25  lbs.  of 
nitrogen  per  acre,  would  use  the  nitrogen  added  by  a  crop  of  clover? 

3.  If  an  acre  of  clover  yields  3,500  lbs.  of  hay  the  first  cutting, 
and  2,500  lbs.  the  second,  what  is  the  value  of  the  hay  at  $10  per  ton? 

CURING  HAY 

The  Weather. — The  quality  of  hay  and  its  value  as 
food  depends  very  largely  on  the  way  it  is  cured.  Since 
hay  on  a  great  many  farms  forms  a  large  part  of  the  winter 
food  for  stock,  it  is  important  that  it  be  cured  in  the  best 
possible  way.  The  weather  has  a  great  deal  to  do  with 
the  curing  of  hay,  and  some  seasons  it  is  practically  impos- 
sible to  get  hay  well  cured.  But  there  are  certain  principles 
involved  that,  if  followed,  will  usually  result  in  a  better 
quality  of  hay  than  is  secured  by  methods  commonly  fol- 
lowed. The  suggestions  given  below  apply  to  clover,  but,  if 
followed,  will  give  good  results  with  any  heavy  crop  of  hay. 

Time  to  Cut. — While  hay  that  is  cut  when  quite  ripe 
yields  more  per  acre  and  is  easier  to  cure  than  earlier  cut 
hay,  it  is  much  less  digestible,  less  palatable,  and  contains 
a  smaller  proportion  of  protein,  which  is  the  most  valuable 
and  costly  element  in  hay.  Experiments  show  that  the 
greatest  amount  of  digestible  food  is  secured  when  hay  is 
cut  at  about  the  time  it  is  in  full  bloom.    With  clover  this 


106 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


is  usually  from  about  June  15th  to  July  1st.  Never  cut 
hay  while  the  dew  is  on  it,  for  time  is  lost  in  the  drying. 
The  dew  will  dry  off  more  quickly  while  the  hay  is  standing. 
Curing. — If  clover  is  cut  in  the  forenoon  of  a  bright 
day,  it  should  be  turned  over,  with  either  a  rake  or  a  tedder, 
b^ore  any  of  the  top  leaves  become  dry.  The  object 
sought  in  curing  clover  hay  should  be  to  keep  the  leaves 
green  as  long  as  possible,  as  they  help  to  draw  the  moisture 
out  of  the  large  stems,  which  are  the  difficult  part  to  cure 


Figure  46. — A   modern   hay  loader  saves   time   and   labor. 


If  it  gets  dry  enough  the  first  day,  so  that  a  good  job  of 
raking  can  be  done,  rake  it  before  night;  if  not,  ted  it,  if 
ix)ssible,  so  as  to  get  the  green  hay  from  the  bottom  on  top 
to  take  the  dew,  as  dew  will  blacken  partly  cured  clover. 
If  it  looks  like  rain,  cock  the  hay  as  soon  as  possible;  if 
not,  leave  it  in  the  windrow.  The  next  morning  as  soon 
as  the  top  part  of  the  hay  is  nearly  dry,  rake,  or,  if  raked, 
turn  the  windrow  over  either  by  hand  with  a  fork  or  with 
the  team  and  rake.  Aim  to  keep  the  hay  loose  in  the 
windrow,  so  that  the  air  can  pass  through  it  freely.  The 
leaves  are  largely  protected  from  the  hot  sun  in  this  way, 


HAY  AND  PASTURE  CROPS 


107 


and  can  perform  their  function  of  drawing  water  from  the 
stems,  and  are  not  shattered  off  and  lost.  It  is  usually 
wise  to  cock  the  hay  the  second  day,  if  it  is  too  green  to 
store,  and  leave  in  the  cocks  a  day  or  two;  then  open  up 
cocks  for  an  hour  or  so  to  the  sun  and  wind;  then  put  under 
shelter,  either  in  barn  or  stack. 

Damaged  by  Hot  Sun. — The  old  adage,  "Make  hay 
while  the  sun  shines,"  is  good  advice,  but  may  be  overdone. 
Hay,  especially  clover,  that  has  been  exposed  to  the  sun 
for  very  long  is  very  materially  injured,  as  the  thin  leaves 


Figure  47. — The  hay  sling  in  operation  in  unloading  hay.     Two  or  three  sling 
loads  will  take  off  a  large  wagon-load  of  hay  and  leave  very  little  scatterings. 

are  dried  up  and  lost  and  little  is  left  but  stems.  The  heat 
of  the  sun  is  very  essential  to  evaporate  the  moisture  from 
the  leaves  and  stems.  This  may  be  accomplished,  how- 
ever, by  curing  the  hay  in  the  cock  or  windrow  and  with- 
out allowing  the  sun  to  shine  directly  on  the  leaves. 

Cock  covers  may  often  be  used  with  profit.  It  seems 
expensive  when  one  first  considers  them,  but  if  one  con- 
siders that  bran  is  worth  $20.00  or  more  per  ton  and  that 
good  clover  hay  is  worth  very  nearly  half  as  much  as  bran 
for  feed,  one  must  acknowledge  that  the  difference  in  value 
between  good  and  poor  hay  is  often  more  than  the  cost  of 
using  covers. 

Cock  covers  are  pieces  of  canvas  or  sheeting  about  four 
feet  square,  with  weights  sewed  in  each  comer,  so  that 
when  one  is  spread  over  a  hay  cock,  the  wind  will  not  blow 


108  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

it  off.     Such  a  cover  helps  to  protect  hay,  while  curing, 
from  both  the  sun  and  the  rain. 

We  would  advise  our  readers  to  test  curing  clover  largely 
in  the  shade,  as  suggested  above,  with  at  least  one  cock  of 
hay,  then  compare  with  other  clover  cut  at  the  same  time 
but  exposed  to  the  sun  and  dew  for  two  or  three  days. 

If  clover  is  cured  until  thoroughly  dry,  and  then  cocked, 
it  will  shed  very  little  water,  as  the  stiff  stems  stick  out 
in  every  direction  and  the  water  follows  them  down  through 
the  cock.  But,  if  hay  is  cocked  when  only  partly  dry, 
the  stems  are  limber  and  wilted  and  so  hang  down  over 
the  sides  of  the  cock,  and  tend  to  shed  water. 
Questions: 

1.  In  what  ways  may  the  value  of  hay  be  reduced  in  curing? 

2.  At  what  stage  of  growth  should  a  hay  crop  be  cut?     Why? 

3.  What  is  gained  by  protecting  clover  hay  from  the  sun  when 
curing  it? 

4.  Do  you  think  it  will  pay  to  use  cock  covers  in  curing  hay?  Why? 
Arithmetic: 

1.  If  a  cock  cover  large  enough  to  cover  80  lbs.  of  hay  costs  20c. 
how  much  will  it  cost  for  enough  to  cover  1  ton  of  hay? 

2.  If  cock  covers  can  be  used  five  times  each  year  and  will  last 
5  years,  how  many  times  can  each  be  used  during  its  lifetime? 

3.  If  enough  cock  covers  to  cover  a  ton  of  hay  cost  $5.00  and 
can  be  used  25  times,  how  much  does  it  cost  per  ton  for  cock  covers? 

ALFALFA 

Alfalfa  has  been  grown  for  forage  for  many  hundreds  of 
years.  It  is  not  a  new  crop,  though  in  many  sections  of  the 
country  it  is  just  being  introduced.  Alfalfa  and  corn  are 
the  two  crops  that  have  been  most  talked  about  during  the 
past  ten  years,  and  on  this  account  many  persons  regard 
alfalfa  as  a  new  crop. 

Advantages. — The  chief  advantages  of  alfalfa  over 
other  hay  and  pasture  crops  are  its  richness  in  food  value, 
the  rapidity  of  growth, — it  produces  from  two  to  four  crops 
per  year, — and  its  perennial  habits.  Common  clover  us- 
ually grows  but  two  years,  and  furnishes  a  crop  but  one  year. 
When  alfalfa  is  once  established  in  a  field,  it  remains  and 
continues  to  produce  good  crops  for  many  years.  Alfalfa 
is  also  a  valuable  crop  to  enrich  the  soil  on  which  it  grows. 
Like  clover,  it  has  on  its  poots  bacteria,  which  gather  the 
free  nitrogen  from  the  air  and  eventually  add  it  to  the  soil. 


HAY  AND  PASTURE  CROPS 


109 


It  has  an  exceedingly  heavy  root  system.  The  roots  grow 
into  the  soil  to  a  greater  depth  than  any  other  common 
cultivated  crop.  When  an  alfalfa  field  is  broken  up,  the 
soil  is  rich  in  nitrogen,  and  well  supplied  with  vegetable 
matter.  As  alfalfa  grows  rapidly  and  is  cut  two  or  more 
times  a  year,  it  is  a  very  good  crop  to  rid  the  soil  of  weeds. 
Feeding  Value. — Alfalfa  is  the  richest  hay  crop  produced, 
and  under  favorable  conditions  produces  more  food  value 
per  acre  than  any  other  hay  crop.  The  following  table 
shows  the  composition  of  alfalfa  hay  as  compared  with 
other  common  kinds  of  hay. 

Composition  of  Common  Kinds  of  Hay  Nutrients  in  One  Pound. 


Protein 
Pounds 


Carbo- 
hydrates 
Pounds 


Fat 
Pounds 


Alfalfa 

Alsike  clover 

Medium  red  clover . 

Prairie  hay 

Timothy  hay 

Slough  hay 

Fodder  corn 


.11 

.084 
.071 
.030 
.028 
.026 
.037 


.40 
.42 
.38 
.42 
.43 
.42 
.41 


.012 
.015 
.018 
.014 
.014 
.011 
.015 


Besides  being  richer  than  other  kinds  of  hay,  alfalfa  is 
relished  by  all  classes  of  Uve  stock,  including  horses,  cattle, 
sheep  and  swine.  When  well  cured  and  intelligently  fed, 
it  is  a  most  valuable  feed  for  all  farm  animals. 

Pasturing. — Alfalfa  pasture  is  one  of  the  best  pastures. 
All  kinds  of  stock  eat  it  readily.  In  fact,  it  is  relished  so 
much  that  great  care  is  necessary  in  turning  stock  into  an 
alfalfa  field  to  prevent  them  from  bloating.  Stock  should 
never  be  turned  on  alfalfa  when  they  are  hungry  or  when 
the  alfalfa  is  wet.  There  is  no  better  hog  pasture  known 
than  alfalfa,  the  main  difficulty  being  that  the  hogs  are 
likely  to  root  up  the  alfalfa  and  thus  thin  out  the  stand. 
If  given  large  pastures  and  plenty  of  salt  and  ashes,  hogs 
are  much  less  likely  to  injure  the  alfalfa  by  rooting. 

Seed. — Alfalfa  produces  seed  readily,  especially  in  rather 
dry  sections.  One  condition  that  has  prevented  a  rapid 
increase  in  alfalfa  in  the  Northwest  has  been  the  difficulty 
of  getting  seed  that  is  entirely  hardy.  Imported  seed,  or 
seed  grown  fh-rther  south  in  the  United  States,  is  not  suffi- 


110  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

ciently  hardy  to  live  over  winters  where  the  cHmate  is  severe. 
Quite  a  number  of  men  have  been  trying  for  years  to  get  or 
produce  hardy  strains  of  alfalfa  for  the  Northwest,  and  it 
is  now  possible  to  get  seed  that  is  comparatively  hardy. 
It  is  advisable  when  possible  to  get  alfalfa  seed  from  a  field 
that  has  grown  under  conditions  similar  to  your  own  and 
has  withstood  the  winters.  Such  seed  is  reasonably  sure 
to  be  hardy.  It  is  never  wise  to  sow  alfalfa  seed  that  you 
have  purchased  until  you  have  had  it  tested  for  germination 
and  for  purity.  You  want  to  be  sure  the  seed  will  grow, 
and  that  it  contains  no  bad  weed  seeds.  Your  experiment 
station  will  usually  make  these  tests  free  of  charge. 

Soil  for  Alfa&a. — With  hardy  seed,  alfalfa  may  be 
grown  successfully  on  nearly  any  soil  that  will  produce 
good  corn.  It  requires  a  well  drained  soil  and  soil  that  is 
not  sour.  The  richer  the  soil  is,  the  better  the  alfalfa 
will  grow;  but,  when  once  started,  it  will  make  fairly  good 
growth  on  even  poor  soils.  If  soil  is  sour,  the  application 
of  limestone  will  correct  it.  It  is  advisable,  if  possible,  to 
plow  land  for  alfalfa  in  the  fall,  then  top-dress  it  with  manure, 
e'ither  in  the  fall  or  spring,  then  in  the  spring  thoroughly 
disk  and  harrow  the  land  before  the  alfalfa  seed  is  sown. 

Sowing. — Alfalfa  may  be  seeded  in  the  spring  with  a 
nurse  crop  or  in  midsummer  alone.  The  safer  plan  is  to 
disk  and  harrow  the  field  every  few  days  from  spring  until 
midsummer.  These  operations  will  destroy  most  of  the 
weeds,  make  a  very  fine  mellow  seed  bed,  and  leave  the  soil 
warm,  moist  and  rich.  Seed  sown  under  these  conditions 
will  start  and  grow  rapidly,  and  usually  get  ahead  of  the 
weeds.  Weeds  are  quite  troublesome  in  getting  alfalfa 
started.  When  sown  in  midsummer  the  seed  is  usually 
sown  broadcast  and  covered  with  the  harrow.  If  sown  in 
the  spring,  it  is  usually  sown  with  a  nurse  crop  the  same  as 
timothy  or  clover. 

Inoculation. — Alfalfa,  like  clover,  has  the  power  of 
adding  nitrogen  to  the  soil.  It  can  do  this  only  when  it 
has  alfalfa  bacteria  growing  on  its  roots.  The  necessary 
bacteria  are  not  always  present  in  the  soil.  This  is  likely 
to  be  true  in  soils  that  have  never  grown  alfalfa  before. 
Farmers  have  found  this  out  and  are  attempting  to  pro- 


HAY  AND  PASTURE  CROPS 


HI 


vide  the  bacteria  artificially.  This  may  be  done  in  several 
ways.  The  most  common  way  is  to  apply  a  few  hundred 
pounds  of  soil  from  an  old  alfalfa  field  to  the  newly  seeded 
field.  This  must  be  done  without  exposing  the  soil  handled 
very  much  to  the  sunlight,  as  the  sun  will  quickly  destroy 
the  bacteria.  The  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture will  furnish  the  bacteria  free  in  a  small  bottle, 
together  with  instructions  for  using.  This  is  a  very  easy 
way  of  making  sure  that  the  proper  bacteria  are  present. 


Figure  48. — Cutting  a  field  of  alfalfa. 

Cutting. — Alfalfa  may  be  cut  two  or  more  times  each 
year  according  to  soil,  climate  and  degree  of  development 
desired.  It  should  be  cut  when  the  shoots  representing  the 
new  growth  have  started.  This  stage  is  easily  determined 
by  looking  at  the  plants  near  the  ground.  If  at  any  time  the 
crop  begins  to  turn  yellow,  it  is  advisable  to  cut  it,  as  it  will 
make  no  further  growth  of  value  until  cut. 

Curing  the  Hay. — Alfalfa  hay,  like  clover  hay,  is  quite 
hard  to  cure  in  the  parts  of  the  country  where  there  is  likely 
to  be  rain.  Most  of  the  alfalfa  is  growing  in  the  semi- 
arid  or  irrigated  sections  where  there  is  little  rain  to  bother. 
In  the  states  where  clover  is  grown,  alfalfa  hay  is  handled 
in  about  the  same  way  as  clover  hay;  that  is,  it  is  cut  when 


112 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


the  second  growth  starts  which  sometimes  is  before  it  blooms, 
then  raked  as  soon  as  it  can  be  raked,  and  cured  largely 
in  the  windrow  or  small  cock.  This  is  to  save  the  leaves 
from  drying  up  and  shattering  off,  as  the  leaves  are  the 


,  Figure  49. — Curing  alfalfa  hay  under  cock  covers. 

richest  and  most  valuable  part  of  the  hay.  As  alfalfa  hay 
is  worth  about  $15  per  ton  for  feed,  it  usually  pays  to  use 
cock  covers  in  curing  it  to  protect  it  from  the  rain  and  dew. 

'Questions: 

1.  In  what  way  does  alfalfa  differ  from  medium  red  clover? 

2.  What  classes  of  stock  will  eat  alfalfa  hay? 

3.  How  would  you  prepare  a  field  for  alfalfa? 

4.  What  do  you  understand  by  inoculating  soil  for  alfalfa? 
Arithmetic: 

1.  Fifteen  pounds  of  alfalfa  seed  are  required  to  seed  an  acre, 
how  much  will  the  seed  cost  at  20c.  per  pound? 

2.  If  an  acre  of  alfalfa  produces  3  crops  in  one  year,  1st  crop 
3,500  lbs.,  2nd  crop  3,000  lbs.,  and  3rd  crop  2,500  lbs.,  how  many  tons 
would  be  produced. 

3.  If  a  ton  of  alfalfa  hay  is  worth  $10,  how  much  would  the 
hay  produced  on  the  acre  mentioned  in  Example  No.  2  be  worth? 

OTHER  COMMON  HAT  AND  PASTURE  CROPS 

Timothy  is  the  most  common  hay  crop  grown.  It  is 
grown  in  every  state  in  the  Union.  It  is  a  perennial  plant, 
and  will  continue  to  produce  hay  or  pasture  year  after 
year  without  reseeding,  unless  the  land  is  plowed  up.  It 
may  be  grown  alone  or  mixed  with  other  grasses.     A  very 


HAY  AND  PASTURE  CROPS  113 

common  grass  mixture  for  seeding  meadows  or  pastures 
is :  6  pounds  medium  red  clover  and  8  pounds  of  timothy  seed 
per  acre.  When  timothy  is  sown  alone,  about  10  pounds 
of  seed  are  required.  The  seed  is  usually  sown  with  a 
nurse  crop  such  as  wheat,  oats  or  barley.  The  grain  crop 
protects  the  young  plants  from  the  hot  sun  and  dry  winds, 
and  also  prevents  the  growth  of  weeds.  The  grain  crop 
also  produces  on  the  land  a  valuable  crop  during  the  year 
the  grass  crop  requires  to  get  started.  In  this  way  no  time 
is  lost,  and  a  crop  is  secured  every  year. 

Cutting  for  Hay. — Timothy  usually  produces  but  one 
crop  of  hay  each  year,  though  sometimes  a  light  second 
cutting  is  secured.  Like  clover,  it  should  be  cut  when  in 
bloom,  but  it  does  not  bloom  until  about  two  we.^ks  after 
red  clover  blooms;  so,  if  the  two  are  grown  together,  one 
crop  must  be  cut  a  little  too  early  or  the  other  a  little  too 
late.  Timothy  is  cut  and  cured  very  much  the  same  as 
clover;  but  it  is  much  easier  to  cure,  because  it  does  not  grow 
so  heavy  or  have  such  large  juicy  stems.  In  favorable 
weather  it  may  be  cut  in  the  morning  as  soon  as  the  dew  is 
off  and  raked  up  the  same  afternoon. 

Value  for  Feed. — Owing  to  the  ease  of  growing  and  cur- 
ing, and  its  freedom  from  dust,  timothy  hay  is  the  fav- 
orite for  horses.  If  cut  in  proper  season  it  is  readily  eaten 
by  all  classes  of  animals.  It  is  not  popular,  however,  as 
feed  for  cattle,  chiefly  because  it  is  not  rich  in  protein  or 
muscle-forming  material. 

Timothy  Pasture. — Timothy  is  very  generally  used  for 
pasture,  but  it  is  not  so  valuable  for  this  purpose  as  for 
hay.  It  is  used  because  seed  is  cheap,  and  because  meadows 
that  have  produced  hay  for  a  year  or  more  are  very  commonly 
used  for  pasture.  For  one  or  two  years  timothy  furnishes 
fairly  good  pasture,  but  after  that  the  stand  gets  thinner 
and  rather  bunchy.  If  it  is  to  be  used  for  pasture,  it  is 
well  to  seed  with  the  timothy  alsike  clover  and  if  one  is 
seeding  down  a  permanent  pasture,  that  is  a  field  to  be  in 
pasture  five  or  more  years,  it  is  better  to  add  five  pounds 
to  ten  pounds  per  acre  of  Kentucky  blue  grass  seed.  The 
timothy  and  clover  will  furnish  the  greater  part  of  the 
pasture  for  the  first  two  or  three  years,  and  after  that  the 


114  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Kentucky  blue  grass  will  gradually  take  its  place.  After 
bhie  grass  gets  a  good  start,  it  furnishes  much  better  pasture 
than  timothy.  Permanent  timothy  or  blue  grass  pastures 
are  greatly  improved  by  harrowing  and  top-dressing,  (spread- 
ing on  a  light  coating  of  manure),  every  two  or  three  years. 
Brome  grass  is  another  valuable  hay  and  pasture  crop. 
It  is  unpopular  in  many  places  because  many  farms  have 
been  infested  with  quack  grass  from  seeding  brome  grass. 
The  seed  of  quack  grass  and  brome  grass  are  so  much  alike 


Figure  50. — Stacking  hay  by  machinery. 

that  only  an  expert  can  distinguish  between  them.  Many 
of  the  states  now  have  seed  laws  that  require  that  all  seeds 
for  seeding  purposes  must  be  labeled,  and  if  a  sample  of 
seed  contains  quack  grass  it  must  be  so  stated  on  the  label. 
Most  of  the  states  have  seed  laboratories  in  connection 
with  their  experiment  stations  in  which  samples  of  seed 
will  be  tested  free.  These  laws  will  make  it  safe  to  sow 
brome  grass.  Brome  grass  is  very  well  adapted  to  condi- 
tions where  there  is  likely  to  be  a  shortage  of  rainfall.  It 
is  especially  valuable  in  such  places  for  pasture.  It  will 
probably  never  be  a  very  important  crop  where  timothy, 
clover  and  alfalfa  are  easily  grown.  Its  feeding  value  is 
a])out  the  same  as  timothy,  and  it  is  cured  and  handled  in 
about  the  same  manner.  From  ten  to  fifteen  pounds  of 
seed  are  sown  per  acre,  usually  with  a  nurse  crop. 


HAY  AND  PASTURE  CROPS  115 

Other  Varieties  of  Grass. — Kentucky  blue  grass,  red- 
top,  orchard  grass,  Johnson  grass,  rye  grass,  etc.,  are  other 
important  and  valuable  grass  crops  for  special  conditions. 
Space  here  is  too  limited  to  discuss  them.  Bulletins  from 
your  state  experiment  station,  or  from  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  giving  full  information  about 
these  grasses,  may  be  secured  by  writing  for  them. 

Questions: 

1.  Why  is  timothy  such  a  popular  hay  crop? 

2.  Tell  what  you  can  about  brome  grass. 

3.  Why  are  the  grass  crops  mentioned  in  this  lesson  of  less  value 
than  timothy? 

Arithmetic: 

1.  If  one  sows  6  lbs.  of  red  clover  seed  worth  15c.  per  lb.  and  8 
lbs.  of  timothy  seed  worth  6c.  per  lb.,  how  much  does  the  seed  cost 
per  acre? 

2.  If  an  acre  of  timothy  produces  13^  tons  of  hay,  how  long  will 
it  last  a  horse  fed  at  the  rate  of  15  lbs.  per  day? 

3.  It  takes  15  lbs.  of  brome  grass  seed  to  seed  an  acre.  How 
much  does  it  cost  at  18c.  per  lb? 

Exercises: 

1.  Dig  up  and  bring  to  school  a  clover  plant,  alfalfa  plant,  and 
timothy  plant.  Make  sure  you  can  identify  each.  Make  a  list  of 
the  special  differences  of  each. 

2.  Gather  samples  (a  complete  plant)  of  each  of  the  following 
kinds  of  clover:  Medium  red,  Alsike,  White,  White  sweet  clover. 
Can  you  tell  them  all  apart?     How? 

3.  Gather  two  handfuls  of  green  clover  at  haying  time.  Lay  one 
sample  out  in  the  sun  with  no  protection  from  sun  or  dew  or  rain. 
Hang  the  other  in  a  shady,  airy  place  where  dew  and  rain  and  sun 
can  not  reach  it.  Watch  these  closely  for  two  or  three  days  and  see 
which  makes  the  better  hay. 

4.  Dig  up  carefully  several  good  strong  clover  or  alfalfa  plants 
and  see  if  you  can  find  the  nodules  of  the  nitrogen-gathering  bacteria, 
as  shown  in  Figure  45. 

5.  Bring  to  school  leaves  of  Medium  red,  Alsike  and  White 
clover  and  alfalfa.     Iteam  to  tell  them  apart. 

6.  Gather  heads  of  several  different  kinds  of  the  common  grasses 
grown  for  hay  or  pasture  in  your  community.  Learn  to  know  at  sight 
timothy,  bromus,  red  top  and  blue  grass. 


CHAPTER  VII 
MISCELLANEOUS  CROPS 

FORAGE  CROPS 

Millet  is  commonly  grown  as  a  catch  crop  where  some 
other  crop  has  failed,  or  where  it  is  necessary  to  sow  a  crop 
late.  It  is  usually  cut  for  hay,  but  some  of  the  varieties 
known  as  the  broom  corn  millets  are  grown  for  seed.  The 
seed  is  used  as  feed  for  live  stock.  Millet  has  about  the 
same  effect  on  the  soil  as  a  grain  crop.  It  is  very  good  as 
a  cleaning  crop,  as  it  grows  quickly  and  covers  the  ground 
very  thoroughly.  It  will  grow  on  most  any  kind  of  soil. 
It  may  be  sown  any  time  during  the  early  summer,  and  will 
be  ready  to  cut  for  hay  eight  or  ten  weeks  after  seeding. 
Two  to  three  pecks  of  seed  per  acre  should  be  sown. 

Rape  is  a  forage  plant  that  appears,  when  growing,  very 
much  like  rutabagas.  It  does  not,  however,  produce  a 
heavy  edible  root  like  the  rutabaga.  It  is  used  chiefly  as 
^  pasture  plant  for  hogs  and  sheep.     Cattle  will  eat  it,  but 


Figure  51. — A  field  of  rape  ready  for  sheep  or  hogs. 


MISCELLANEOUS  CROPS  117 

it  is  not  regarded  an  important  pasture  crop  for  cattle. 
It  is  often  sown  with  grain  crops  in  the  spring  at  the  rate 
of  from  one  to  three  pounds  of  seed  per  acre.  After  the 
grain  crop  has  been  harvested  the  rape  grows  up  in  the 
stubble  and  furnishes  pasture  for  stock  during  the  fall. 
For  small  fields  to  be  pastured  by  sheep  or  hogs,  it  is  com- 
monly sown  alone,  at  the  rate  of  three  or  four  pounds  per 
acre.  It  may  be  seeded  at  almost  any  season  of  the  year 
until  fall.  Six  weeks  after  seeding  it  is  ready  to  be  pastured 
off,  if  fair  growing  conditions  have  prevailed.  It  is  one  of 
the  most  popular  annual  crops  grown  for  hog  and  sheep 
pasture,  because  the  seed  is  comparatively  cheap. 

Field  peas  are  grown  to  some  extent  for  seed  and  also 
for  hay  and  pasture,  especially  in  the  North.  Its  chief 
value  is  for  pasture  for  hogs  and  sheep,  either  when  green 
or  when  the  crop  is  mature.  The  chief  objection  to  the 
crop  is  the  amount  of  seed  required  per  acre  and  its  cost. 
Peas  must  be  sown  early  in  the  spring.  They  may  be 
sown  alone  at  the  rate  of  three  to  four  bushels  of  seed  per 
acre,  but  are  more  commonly  sown  with  oats  at  the  rate 
of  two  bushels  of  peas  and  one  bushel  of  oats.  The  crop 
may  be  pastured  off  green,  cut  for  hay,  or  allowed  to  ripen 
and  then  fed  off  by  hogs  or  sheep. 

The  soy  bean  is  an  annual  legume  crop  quite  commonly 
grown  in  southern  parts  of  the  United  States,  but  at  present 
is  not  of  great  importance  in  the  North.  The  common 
field  pea  takes  its  place  in  the  North,  because  the  soy  bean 
is  very  tender  to  frost.  This  crop  is  grown  for  seed,  for 
hay  and  for  pasture.  It  is  sown  both  in  drills  and  broad- 
cast. When  sown  in  drills  about  one  half  bushel  of  seed 
is  required  per  acre,  and  when  sown  broadcast  about  one 
bushel  of  seed  is  used.  It  is  not  sown  until  danger  of  frost 
is  past. 

The  cowpea  is  another  annual  legume  that  is  becoming 
of  great  importance  in  the  South  as  a  green  manure  hay 
and  pasture  crop.  It  may  be  sown  late  in  the  summer 
after  a  corn  or  cotton  crop  is  out  of  the  way,  or  between 
the  rows  of  corn  or  cotton,  then  cut  for  hay,  pastured  or 
plowed  under  late  in  the  fall.  It,  also,  is  very  tender  to 
frost,  and  is  not  profitable  as  far  north  as  is  the  soy  bean. 


118  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE      . 

It  may  be  sown  in  drills  and  cultivated,  or  broadcast,  as 
desired.  When  sown  in  drills  from  two  to  three  pecks  of 
seed  are  used;  when  sown  broadcast  from  four  to  six  pecks. 
Vetch  is  an  annual  legume  plant,  very  fine  and  trailing 
in  character.  It  is  grown  for  hay,  or  as  a  green  manure 
crop.  There  are  two  kinds,  spring  and  winter.  The  winter, 
or  hairy  vetch,  is  by  far  the  more  valuable.  It  may  be 
sown  in  the  fall  or  spring,  as  desired.  It  is  commonly  sown 
in  the  fall  with  rye,  and  the  whole  crop  cut  for  hay  early 
the  following  summer  or  plowed  under.  It  is  sown  at  the 
rate  of  from  four  to  six  pecks  per  acre.  None  of  the  annual 
legume  crops  are  important  in  general  farming  where  the 
clovers  and  alfalfa  can  be  grown  successfully. 

Questions: 

1.  Tell  what  you  can  about  the  uses  and  culture  of  millet. 

2.  Tell  what  you  can  about  the  uses  and  culture  of  rape. 

3.  Tell  what  you  can  about  the  uses  and  culture  of  the  annual 
legume  crops  discussed  in  this  lesson. 

Arithmetic: 

1.  If  rape  seed  costs  8c.  per  pound,  and  33^  lbs.  are  required  per 
acre,  how  much  does  rape  seed  cost  per  acre? 

2.  If  3  bus.  of  peas  are  required  to  seed  an  acre,  how  much  will 
they  cost  at  $1.50  per  bushel? 

3.  What  is  the  value  of  an  acre  of  rape  pastiu-e,  if  it  will  produce 
as  much  pork  as  1,000  lbs.  of  shorts,  when  shorts  are  worth  $25  per 
ton? 

RICE  AND  SUGAR  CANE 

Rice  is  one  of  the  oldest  cultivated  plants,  and  forms 
the  staple  article  of  diet  for  millions  of  people  in  India, 
China  and  Japan.  The  world's  rice  crop  exceeds  the  world's 
wheat  crop  or  corn  crop.  Nearly  all  the  rice  grown  in  the 
United  States  is  raised  in  three  states,  Louisiana,  Texas, 
and  Arkansas.  The  fertile  river  valleys  and  plains  of  these 
states  and  their  warm  climate  make  rice-growing  profitable. 

The  land  is  prepared  in  much  the  same  manner  as  for 
other  grains, — plowed  in  the  spring  and  disked  and  harrowed. 
The  seed  is  generally  sown  with  a  grain  drill  at  the  rate  of 
one  to  two  bushels  per  acre,  either  the  latter  part  of  April 
or  the  first  of  May.  When  the  crop  is  about  eight  inches 
high,  it  is  flooded  with  water  to  a  depth  of  from  three  to 
six  inches,  which  depth  is  maintained  until  the  crop  begins 
to  ripen.     The  water  is  then  drawn  off  to  allow  the  ground 


MISCELLANEOUS  CROPS  119 

to  dry  for  harvesting.  The  crop  is  cut  with  a  binder,  stacked, 
and  threshed  as  other  grains.  In  miUing  rice,  it  is  not 
ground,  but  is  hulled  and  the  kernels  *poHshed.  Rice  is 
more  nutritious  if  it  is  not  polished,  as  this  process  removes 
the  portion  which  contains  the  fat. 

Sugar  Cane. — Sugar  cane  is  a  plant  which  greatly 
resembles  corn,  only  no  ears  are  produced.  It  is  grown  for 
the  juice  contained  in  the  stalk.  Sorghum,  raised  in  small 
quantities  in  the  northern  states  to  produce  molasses  for 
family  use,  is  an  annual;  but  the  sugar  cane  of  the  southern 
states  is  a  perennial.  The  former  is  raised  from  seed  which 
forms  on  top  of  the  stalk.  The  latter  is  propagated  from 
sections  of  the  stalk. 

Soil  and  Climate. — Ordinary  good  soil  is  suitable  for 
sugar  cane.  In  regions  of  slight  rainfall,  irrigation  is  neces- 
sary.    The  crop  requires  a  long,  hot  season. 

Planting  and  Cultivation. — Sugar  cane  is  generally 
planted  by  laying  the  entire  stalk  or  a  portion  of  it  in  furrows 
from  four  to  six  feet  apart.  The  new  plants  grow  from  the 
buds  at  the  bottom  of  the  leaves.  Frequent  cultivation  is 
necessary,    also   hand    hoeing. 

Harvesting  and  Manufacturing. — The  canes  are  first 
stripped  of  their  leaves,  and  then  cut  off  close  to  the  ground 
with  a  knife.  As  they  soon  begin  to  lose  their  juice,  it  is 
important  that  they  reach  the  mill  as  quickly  as  possible. 
At  the  mill  the  stalks  are  first  shredded  and  then  passed 
between  heavy  rollers.  The  crushed  stalks  are  used  in  the 
mill  furnace.  The  juice  is  first  purified  and  filtered,  and  then 
boiled  to  sugar  crystals. 
Questions: 

1.  How  does  rice  compare  in  importance  as  a  world  crop  with 
corn  and  wheat? 

2.  State  briefly  the  methods  used  in  growing  rice. 

3.  Tell  what  you  can  of  the  use  and  methods  used  in  growing 
sugar  cane. 

Arithmetic: 

1.  If  Louisiana  produces  380,000  acres  of  rice  yielding  1,000 
lbs.  of  cleaned  rice  per  acre,  how  many  pounds  of  rice  are  produced  in 
the  state? 

2.  If  the  world's  production  of  cleaned  rice  is  175,000,000,000 
lbs.,  and  the  production  in  the  United  States  is  550,000,000  lbs.,  what 
per  cent  of  the  world's  rice  crop  is  produced  in  the  United  States? 


120  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

3.  The  world's  production  of  cane  sugar  amounts  to  about 
8,000,000  long  tons,  of  which  continental  United  States  produced 
about  325,000  tons.  -What  per  cent  of  the  world's  crop  was  produced 
in  the  United  States? 

FIBER  CROPS 

Fiber  is  a  slender,  threadlike  substance  used  in  making 
numerous  things,  such  as  cloth,  silk,  rope,  thread,  twine, 
paper,  etc.  It  is  obtained  from  two  sources,  animal  and 
vegetable.  The  most  important  animal  fiber  is  wool  from 
the  sheep  and  the  silk  spun  by  the  silk  worm.  A  large  part 
of  the  vegetable  fiber  is  taken  from  the  three  plants,  cotton, 
flax  and  hemp. 

Cotton. — Cotton  is  a  plant  raised  extensively  in,  the 
southern  states.  The  large,  white  blossom  of  this  plant 
turns  pink  the  second  day,  and  later  developes  into  a  body 
about  the  size  and  shape  of  an  egg.  When  ripe,  this  breaks 
open,  exposing  the  seeds  which  are  covered  with  fiber  or  lint 
from  one  to  two  inches  long.  It  is  this  lint  when  removed 
from  the  seed  that  is  used  in  making  thread,  cloth,  etc. 

Soil. — The  largest  crops  of  cotton  are  raised  on  the 
rich,  loamy  soils  of  the  southern  Mississippi  Valley  and  the 
clay  loams  of  Texas.  But  it  may  be  raised  successfully  on 
light  sandy  soils,  if  they  are  fertile  and  moist.  (Nearly 
all  the  cotton  production  in  the  United  States  is  limited  to 
the   southeastern   states.) 

Planting  and  Cultivation. — The  seed  is  usually  dropped 
evenly  in  furrows.  The  furrows  are  generally  from  two  and 
a  half  to  five  feet  apart.  When  plants  are  about  two  inches 
high  the  spaces  between  rows  are  plowed,  and  the  plants  in 
the  rows  thinned  out  with  a  hoe  until  they  are  usually 
from  one  to  two  feet  apart.  The  crop  is  later  cultivated 
from  three  to  five  times,  and  hoed  once  or  twice. 

Picking  and  Ginning. — The  cotton  picking  is  done  by 
hand,  and  commences  as  soon  as  a  considerable  number  of 
pods  or  bolls  open.     Usually  three  pickings  are  necessary. 

In  the  ginning  the  lint  is  removed  from  the  seed  and 
packed  into  bales  ready  for  the  mills. 

Flax. — The  flax  plant  is  an  annual  which  grows  from 
twelve  to  twenty  inches  high.  It  has  a  single,  upright 
stem  and  a  light  blue  blossom.     It  is  from  the  stem  that  the 


MISCELLANEOUS  CROPS  121 

fiber  is  taken.  Flax  is  raised  also  for  the  seed  or  grain 
from  which  oil  is  made.  After  the  oil  has  been  removed, 
the  remaining  part  of  the  grain  is  used  to  feed  stock.  The 
oil  is  called  linseed  oil  and  is  used  extensively  in  mixing  paints. 

Soil. — Flax  grows  best  on  a  comparatively  light  soil. 
Sandy  loams  are  better  than  clay.  It  grows  better  than 
-any  other  crop  on  tough  sods.  For  that  reason  it  is  often 
the  first  crop  on  newly  cultivated  land. 

Preparation  and  Planting. — On  old  land,  deep  plowing 
and  thorough  packing  of  seed  bed  are  necessary.  Sod  land 
is  usually  plowed  in  the  fall  or  early  spring.  The  plow  is 
run  just  deep  enough  to  turn  the  sod  over.  It  may  then 
be  disked  and  packed  by  a  roller.  The  seed  is  usually  sown 
with  a  grain  drill  from  one  to  two  inches  deep.  If  flax  is 
raised  for  fiber,  it  is  seeded  thickly,  as  this  method  pro- 
duces longer  stems  with  fewer  branches  and  less  seed.  About 
two  bushels  to  an  acre  is  the  average  rate  of  seeding  for 
fiber.  If  flax  is  raised  for  seed,  it  is  thinly  sown  so  that  the 
plants  may  branch  freely,  thus  producing  more  seed.  From 
two  to  three  pecks  to  an  acre  is  the  average  rate  to  produce 
seed.  It  may  be  sown  as  soon  as  danger  of  frost  is  over, 
usually  about  the  middle  of  May,  and  is  harvested  about 
the  first  of  September. 

Harvesting. — Seed  flax  is  cut  with  a  grain  binder,  or 
with  a  reaper,  and  threshed  much  the  same  as  wheat.  Fiber 
flax  is  usually  pulled  by  hand,  tied  into  small  bundles,  and 
put  into  shocks  to  cure.  Two  or  three  weeks  later  the  seeds 
are  rubbed  out,  also  by  hand.  The  straw  is  then  spread  out 
thinly  on  the  ground  and  left  to  weather  for  three  or  four 
weeks.  This  process  is  known  as  retting.  The  straw  is 
then  pounded  or  bent  to  separate  the  fiber.  The  fiber 
is  then  ready  for  the  manufacturer. 

Hemp. — Hemp  is  an  annual  plant,  and  grows  from 
eight  to  twelve  feet  high. 

Soil. — Rich  land  well  fertilized  gives  the  best  results. 

Culture. — About  five  pecks  of  seed  to  the  acre  are  sown 
either  broadcast  or  with  a  grain  drill.  It  usually  grows 
rapidly,  and  is  ready  to  harvest  when  the  seeds  ripen, 
which  is  usually  about  three  and  a  half  months  from  plant- 
ing time.     It  is  cut  with  a  mower  or  a  corn  knife  and  al- 


122  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

lowed  to  lie  on  the  ground  to  ret.     Hemp  fiber  is  mostly 
used  for  the  manufacture  of  carpet  warp  and  rope. 
Questions: 

1.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  term  fiber  crops? 

2.  Tell  what  you  can  about  the  uses  and  culture  of  cotton. 

3.  Tell  what  you  can  about  the  uses  and  culture  of  flax  fiber. 
Arithmetic: 

1.  If  Texas  produces  25%  of  the  12,000,000  bales  of  cotton  pro- 
duced in  the  United  States,  how  much  is  produced  in  Texas? 

2.  If  ^  of  the  12,000,000  bales  of  cotton  produced  in  the  United 
States  is  exported,  how  many  bales  are  exported? 

3.  If  a  farmer  produces  50  acres  of  cotton  yielding  400  Ibsl  per 
acre,  how  many  500-pound  bales  will  he  produce? 

Exercises: 

1.  Bring  to  school  seeds  of  all  the  miscellaneous  crops  mentioned 
in  this  chapter.     Learn  to  identify  them. 

2.  How  many  of  these  crops  are  raised  in  your  neighborhood? 
Find  out  what  each  crop  is  used  for.  What  part  of  each  plant  is  the 
principal    object   of   its    cultivation? 

3.  Try  to  find  a  rape  plant  and  a  rutabaga  plant  and  see  whether 
you  can  tell  them  apart.     What  are  the  differences? 

4.  Find  specimens  of  millet  and  pigeon  grass.  Ascertain  and 
contra^  their  differences  till  you  can  tell  them  apart. 

5.  Examine  a  flax  plant  or  some  flax  straw  and  see  whether  you 
can  find  the  fiber  in  it  that  is  used  for  making  cloth,  rope,  etc.  In 
what  part  is  it?  ♦ 


CHAPTER  VIII 
.     COMMON  WEEDS  AND  THEIR  ERADICATION 

WEEDS 

A  Weed  is  any  plant  out  of  place.  For  example,  rye 
growing  in  a  wheat  field  or  any  grain  plant  growing  in  a 
corn  field  is  as  much  a  weed  as  is  pigeon  grass.  But  we 
commonly  think  of  weeds  as  undesirable  plants  that  are 
found  in  our  fields,  meadows  and  pastures,  such  as  mustard, 
thistle,  etc. 

Weeds  are  harmful  in  many  ways.  As  we  have  learned 
in  the  previous  lesson,  they  use  moisture  and  plant  food 
that  are  needed  by  the  useful  crops.  They  shade  or  crowd 
out  other  plants.  They  greatly  increase  the  cost  of  grow- 
ing crops.  They  increase  the  cost  of  harvesting,  by  requir- 
ing more  twine  and  by  making  more  bulk  to  handle.  They 
decrease  the  quahty  of  grain  and  increase  materially  the 
cost  of  marketing. 

There  is  no  accurate  way  of  estimating  the  loss  caused 
by  weeds,  but  it  is  very  great.  Weeds  cost  many  times 
as  much  as  all  the  schools  in  the  country. 

One  of  the  great  problems  of  farming  is  the  control  of 
weeds,  and  no  farmer  can  make  much  of  a  success  of  his 
business  until  he  learns  how  to  fight  weeds  effectively. 

Weeds  get  into  fields  in  a  great  many  different  ways. 
Some  weed  seeds  remain  in  the  soil  for  several  years,  and 
still  retain  sufficient  vitality  to  grow  when  given  favorable 
opportunity.  Weed  seeds  are  carried  into  fields  by  water, 
by  wind,  by  birds,  by  animals,  by  machinery,  or  some- 
times in  the  seed  grain  or  in  the  grass  seed. 

There  are  no  very  easy  ways  of  controlling  weeds,  but 
the  first  essential  of  success  is  to  know  the  common  weeds 
and  their  habits.  Then  one  may  discover  the  measures 
necessary  for  their  eradication. 

There  are  not  a  great  many  different  weeds  that  are 
very  troublesome,  and  it  is  not  difficult  to  become  so  famil- 


124 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


iar  with  most  of  the  common  ones  as  to  recognize  them 
when  seen,  either  as  seeds  or  as  young  or  mature  plants. 

Specimens. — It  may  prove  an  interesting  and  profitable 
pastime,  at  the  proper  season  of  the  year,  to  gather  speci- 
mens of  all  the  weeds  that  you  commonly  find  in  your 
fields,  to  observe  them  carefully  and  try  to  find  some  charr 
acteristic  by  which  you  can  identify  each  kind.  You  may 
desire  to  press,  mount  and  name  these  specimens. 


Figure  52. — Yellow  mustard,  showing  taproot,  hairy  stem  and  (1)  the  seed  pod 
split  open;  (2)  blossom,  showing  4  petals  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  whence  this 
family  of  plants  is  named  Cruciferae;  (3)  Seeds. 

Mounting  Weeds. — Select  two  or  three  plants  that 
represent  their  class,  and  dig  them  up  in  such  a  way  as  to 
show  the  root,  the  leaves,  the  stem,  and,  if  possible,  the 
blossoms.  Lay  or  hang  them  in  the  shade  until  well  wilted 
but  not  dry.  Then  spread  out  the  parts  carefully,  to  show 
each  plainly.  Lay  the  plants  between  a  couple  of  sheets 
of  blotting  paper,  if  you  have  them;  if  not,  put  the  plants 
between  newspapers,  and  put  heavy  weights  on  them. 
Change  the  papers  often  until  the  plants  are  dry,  to  pre- 


.  WEEDS  AND  THEIR  ERADICATION  125 

vent  them  from  molding.  When  dry,  mount  them  on  a 
piece  of  white  paper  by  pasting  over  the  stem  and  branches, 
and  upon  the  paper  at  several  places,  little  strips  of  paper, 
with  mucilage  or  paste  on  one  side.  Plants  carefully 
mounted  will  be  of  great  value  for  use  in  identifying  weeds. 

Value  of  Collection. — Handling  plants  so  thoroughly 
and  carefully,  as  is  necessary  to  gather  and  mount  them, 
makes  one  quite  familiar  with  them.  You  may  be  sure 
your  teacher  would  appreciate  such  a  collection  of  weeds 
for  use  in  the  schoolroom,  especially  if  they  are  named. 
If  you  do  not  know  the  name  of  some  weed,  and  cannot 
find  out  in  your  neighborhood,  get  as  nearly  a  perfect  speci- 
men of  the  plant  as  you  can  (being  sure  to  get  the  roots, 
stem,  leaves  and,  if  possible,  the  flowers  or  head)  and  send 
it  to  your  State  Experiment  Station,  and  it  will  be  named 
for  you.  If  you  have  studied  botany  or  expect  to  study 
it,  you  will  find  your  work  with  weeds  of  great  value. 

It  is  hoped  that  every  reader  will  examine  carefully 
the  weeds  commonly  found  in  his  locality,  until  he  can 
recognize  them  all  at  sight. 

Questions: 

1.  What  is  a  weed? 

2.  What  do  we  commonly  think  of  as  weeds? 

3.  How  are  weeds  harmful? 

4.  How  great  is  the  loss  caused  by  weeds? 
Arithmetic: 

1.  If  a  field  of  wheat  yielding  18  bus.  per  acre  were  injiu^d  10% 
by  weeds,  how  much  would  it  have  yielded  had  it  been  free  of  weeds? 

2.  If  a  boy  can  pull  the  mustard  in  an  acre  of  ^ain  in  two  days, 
what  does  the  mustard  cost  the  farmer,  if  the  boy's  time  is  worth  60c. 
per  day? 

3.  If  a  man  spends  an  hour  cleaning  enough  seed  grain  for  two 
acres,  how  much  will  it  cost  him  per  acre,  if  his  time  is  worth  14c. 
per  hour? 

WEED  SEEDS  COMMON  IN  GRASS  AND  CLOVER  SEED 

Clean  Seed  Grain. — However  careful  a  farmer  may  be 
a,nd  has  been  for  several  years,  some  weeds  are  bound  to 
spring  up  and  grow  from  roots  or  from  seeds  which  have 
lain  dormant  in  the  soil  for  a  year,  or  perhaps  longer,  until 
recent  plowing  or  harrowing  has  placed  them  where  they 
can  grow.  But  many  farmers  increase  the  amount  of  weeds 
in  their  fields,  and  often  introduce  new  and  bad  varieties 


126 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


Figure  53. — Seeds  of  (1)  wild  pea  or  vetch; 
(2)  wild  buckwheat;  (3)  ragweed  or  king- 
head;  (4)  corn  cockle. 


by  buying  or  using  seed  grain  that  contains  these  weed 
seeds.  The  weeds  in  each  year's  crop  may  be  lessened 
noticeably  by  sowing  only  grain  free  of  weed  seeds. 

Farmers  should  be 
able  to  recognize  the 
weed  seeds  found  in  grain , 
so  that  they  may  not 
buy  and  use  seed  grain 
that  contains  seeds  of 
dangerous  weeds. 

Description. —  Below 
is  given  a  brief  descrip- 
tion of  five  kinds  of  weed 
seeds  most  commonly 
found  in  grain : 

Com  cockle  or  blue 
cockle  is  a  rough,  black,  somewhat  triangular  seed,  about 
as  large  and  heavy  as  a  kernel  of  wheat.  It  is  common 
in  seed  wheat,  as  it  is  hard  to  separate  these  seeds  from 
the  grain.     See  Figure  53. 

Ragweed  or  kinghead  is  a  dark  brown  heavy  seed. 
The  seeds  vary  in  size  from  slightly  smaller  to  consider- 
ably larger  than  a  kernel  of  wheat.  They  are  easily  recog- 
nized by  the  crown-like  appearance  of  the  tip.  The  seed 
is  smaller  at  the  base,  with  several  ribs  extending  length- 
wise and  terminating  in  as  many  points  around  a  central 

point  in  the  tip,  giving 
it  the  crown-like  ap- 
pearance mentioned.  It 
is  common  in  grain  in 
the  Red  River  Valley. 
See  Figure  53. 

Wild  oats  may  be 
distinguished  from  com- 
mon white  oats  by  the 
following  points:  Wild 
oats  are  darker  in  color, 
are  more  slender,  have 
a  small  tuft  of  hair  at 

Figure  54.— Seeds  of  (1)  wild  oats;  (2)  tame  oats,    the      baSe     and    have    SL 


WEEDS  AXD  THEIR  ERADICATION  127 

long,  crooked  awn.  This  awn  is  not  always  a  safe 
guide,  as  it  is  often  broken  off  in  the  threshing  machine. 
See  Figure  54. 

Wild  buckwheat  is  a  black,  three-sided  seed,  often 
found  covered  with  a  brown  husk.  It  is  nearly  the  size 
of  a  kernel  of  wheat,  and  common  in  grain  grown  on  old 
fields.     See  Figure  53. 

Wild  pea  or  vetch  is  a  heavy,  dark  brown  or  gray  seed, 
round  in  shape  and  about  the  size  of,  or  a  little  larger  than, 
a  kernel  of  wheat.  It  closely  resembles  in  shape  the  com- 
mon garden  pea,  and  is  easily  spUt  in  halves  the  same  as 
a  pea  or  a  bean.     It  is  common  in  grain.     See  Figure  53. 

Much  more  will  be  learned  about  the  above  weeds,  if 
samples  of  grain  are  examined  and  specimens  of  weeds  seed 
of  each  variety  discussed  are  found  and  studied. 
Questions: 

1.  Have  you  ever  seen  a  farm  that  was  entirely  free  from  weeds? 

2.  Tell  at  least  two  ways  in  which  weeds  get  into  fields. 

3.  Describe  each  weed  seed  you  have  studied. 
Arithmetic: 

1.  If  a  farmer  sows  a  50-acre  field  of  grain  with  seed  containing 
3%  weed  seed,  how  much  land  will  he  sow  to  weeds?  How  much 
will  he  lose,  if  his  grain  yields  $15.00  worth  of  product  per  acre? 

2.  If  10%  of  the  crop  in  a  field  is  weeds,  and  it  requires  4  lbs.  of 
twine  per  acre,  costing  15c.  per  pound  to  bind  the  crop,  how  much 
does  it  cost  per  acre  for  twine  to  tie  up  the  weeds? 

3.  A  farmer  has  1,000  bus.  of  oats  threshed;  4  lbs.  in  each  bushel 
is  weed  seed.  What  per  cent  of  his  crop  is  weeds?  How  many  pounds 
of  weed  seed  has  he? 

MORE  ABOUT  WEED  SEEDS 

Pure  Seed. — Sowing  grass  and  clover  seed  that  is  not 
pure  is  one  of  the  most  common  ways  of  getting  bad  weeds 
into  the  land. 

Grass  seeds  are  so  small  that  many  weed  seeds  may  be 
mixed  with  them  and  not  be  noticed  unless  one  is  perfectly 
familiar  with  both  the  grass  seeds  and  the  more  common 
weed  seeds. 

Where  there  is  a  good  stand  of  grass  or  clover  there  is 
very  little  chance  for  weeds  to  grow.  Where  there  is  a 
poor  stand — perhaps  the  result  of  sowmg  poor  seed,  or  of 
sowing  on  poor  soil,  or  of  winter  killing — weeds  are  very 


128 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


likely  to  spring  up  and  make  a  good  growth.     If  such  a  grass 
crop  is  cut  for  seed,  the  weed  seeds  are  Hkely  to  be  mixed 

with  the  grass  seed. 

Hay  a  Cleaning  Crop. — If 
a  grass  crop  is  cut  for  hay, 
the  weeds  growing  in  it  are, 
as  a  rule,  cut  before  they  have 
had  time  to  ripen  seeds.  For 
this  reason  the  hay  crop  is 
regarded  as  a  cleaning  crop. 
Hay  with  weeds  in  it  is 
very  inferior  in  quahty,  and 
every  effort  should  be  made 
to  get  such  a   good  stand  of 

Figure  55.- Seeds  of  (1)   quack    grass  gl^^SS     aS      to      prevent     WCCds 

single;  (2)  quack  grass  with    two  or  frOm    grOWing;    with     it.        The 

more  seeds  as  they  grew.     They  were  r-      j.       T  •  •,•  i 

not  separated  when   shelled.       They  tirst     Step     m     gcttmg    a     gOOd 

o^ften  appear  together.     (3)     Pigeon  g^^^d    of   graSS   is   to    SOW  gOOd 

clean  seed  that  will  grow.  If 
the  grass  seed  we  sow  contains  weed  seeds,  we  not  only 
sow  the  undesirable  weed  seeds,  but  also  sow  less  grass 
seed,  hence  get  a  poorer  stand. 

Description. — Below  is  given  a  brief  description  of  four 
kinds  of  weed  seeds  most  common  in  grass  seed: 

Pigeon  grass  seed  is  about  one  fourth  as  large  as  a  grain 
of  wheat.  It  varies  in  color  from  nearly  light  yellow  to 
light  green,  and  has  one  flat  surface.     In  shape  it  is  similar 

to  half  a  bean.  It  is 
common  in  grain  and  in 
grass  seed. 

Mustard  seeds  are 
smaller  than  a  pinhead, 
almost  perfectly  round, 
and  dark  brown  to  nearly 
black  in  color.  They 
resemble  rutabaga  seeds 
and  are  easily  identified 
by  tasting,  as  they  have 
a  sharp,  spicy  taste.  Mustard  seed  is  common  both  in  grain 
and  in  grass  seed.     See  Figure  56. 


Figure  56. — Seeds  of  (1)  pigweed 
mustard,    enlarged. 


(2)    wild 


WEEDS  AND  THEIR  ERADICATION  liit 

Pigv/eed. — The  seeds  of  pigweed  are  small,  shiny  and 
black.  They  are  half  the  size  and  about  the  shape  of  a 
common  pin  head.  They  are  commonly  found  in  grain 
and  in  grass  seed.     See  Figure  56. 

Quack  Grass. — Seeds  are  slender,  light  in  weight, 
somewhat  the  shape  of  oats,  but  only  about  one  half  as 
long.  They  are  green  or  light  yellow  in  color.  Some- 
times two  or  more  seeds  are  joined  together.  They  may 
be  found  in  grain  or  in  grass  seed,  especially  in  bromus. 
Quack  grass  seed  is  a  little  heavier,  smoother,  and  more 
yellowish  in  color  than  bromus  seed. 

We  suggest  that  our  readers  examine  carefully  several 
samples  of  grass  seed  found  in  the  neighborhood;  first,  to 
become  familiar  with  common  grass  seeds,  as  red  and  alsike 
clover,  timothy,  alfalfa,  and  bromus;  and  also  to  learn  to 
identify  the  weed  seeds  mentioned  above,  and  to  readily 
observe  and  know  them  when  seen  in  a  sample  of  grass  seed. 
Questions: 

1.  What  is  a  very  common  way  of  getting  weed^  on  a  farm? 

2.  Why  is  it  easier  to  get  bad  weed  seeds  in  grass  seed  than  in 
seed  grain? 

3.  For  what  reason  is  a  hay  crop  regarded  as  a  cleaning  crop? 
Arithmetic: 

1.  A  bushel  of  timothy  seed  weighs  45  lbs.  What  is  it  worth  at 
5c.  per  lb.? 

2.  A  bushel  of  clover  seed  weighs  GO  lbs.  What  is  it  worth  at 
15c.  per  lb.? 

3.  There  are  32  quarts  in  a  bushel.  Clover  seed  weighs  60  lbs. 
per  bushel.  What  does  one  quart  weigh?  Timothy  seed  weighs  45 
lbs.  per  bushel.     What  does  one  quart  weigh? 

4.  If  a  farmer  seeded  10  acres  of  land  with  grass  seed  containing 
10%  weed  seeds,  how  much  land  would  he  sow  to  weeds? 

CLASSES  OF  WEEDS 

Habits  of  Weeds. — If  the  habits  of  weeds  are  studied, 
it  will  be  found  that  all  weeds  may  be  placed  under  three 
classes:  annuals,  those  that  live  but  one  year;  biennials, 
those  that  live  two  years;  and  perennials,  those  that  live 
from    year    to    year. 

Annual  weeds  are  those  weeds  that  start  from  seed, 
make  their  full  growth,  produce  seed,  and  die  in  one  year. 
In  this  class  we  find  such  common  weeds  as  pigeon  grass, 
lamb's  quarter,  wild  oats,  wild  barley,  mustard,  corn  cockle, 
wild  buckwheat,  French  weed,    ragweed,  etc 


laO  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE  ' 

To  Eradicate  Annual  Weeds. — Keep  weed  seeds  out  of 
the  soil  and  prevent  the  weeds  that  grow  in  the  field  from 
producing  seed.  To  accomplish  this,  the  following  meth- 
ods will  be  found  useful.  Use  only  clean  seed;  that  is,  do 
not  plant  the  weed  seeds.  Seed  the  fields  down  to  tame 
grass  for  hay  or  pasture  one  or  two  years  in  every  three  to 
six  years.  Plant  the  land  to  cultivated  crops  such  as  corn, 
or  potatoes,  once  or  twice  in  every  three  to  five  or  six  years, 


Figure  57. — A  crop  of  clover  hay,  a  good  thing  to  hold  weeds  in  check. 

SO  that  it  may  be  cultivated  and  the  weeds  killed  in  that 
way.  In  other  words,  clean  seed  and  rotation  of  crops  will 
make  it  easy  to  control  annual  weeds. 

Biennial  weeds  are  those  that  live^two  years  and  then 
die.  The  first  year  they  start  from  seed  and  make  part 
of  their  growth.  They  live  over  winter,  then  the  second 
year  complete  their  growth,  produce  seed  and  die.  There 
are  but  two  common  biennial  weeds,  bull  thistle  and  burdock. 
We  believe  every  country  boy  and  girl  know  these  two  com- 
mon weeds.  These  two  weeds  do  not  cause  trouble  in  cul- 
tivated fields,  but  are  very  bothersome  in  old  pastures, 
along  roadsides,  and  in  waste  places. 

To  eradicate  biennial  weeds  it  is  but  necessary  to  keep 
them  from  producing  seed.  The  roots  will  die  in  two 
years,  so  if  no  new  seed  is  produced  they  will  disappear. 
If  the  land  can  be  plowed  and  planted  to  corn  or  grain 
for  a  few  years,  biennial  weeds  will  disappear,  as  the  plow- 


Z7EEDS  AXD  THEIR  ERADICATION 


131 


ing  each  year  prevents  the  plants  from  getting  old  enough 
to  produce  seed.  In  pastures,  mowing  the  weeds  down 
close  to  the  ground  several  times  during  the  summer  will 
prevent  them  from  seeding,  and,  if  this  is  done  for  two  years, 
the  weeds  will  disappear.  It  is  difficult  to  mow  these 
weeds  close  enough  so  that  they  will  not  produce  some  seed. 
The  surest  method  of  getting  rid  of  them  where  the  land 
cannot  be  plowed  is  to  use  a  spud,  (an  implement  similar 
to  a  chisel  with  a  long  handle)  with  which  the  plants  can  be 
cut  off  an  inch  or  so  below  the  ground.  This  is  a  slow  pro- 
cess in  a  large  field,  but  it  is  sure. 


Figure  58.—  Roots  and  sterns  of  quack  grass. 
several  plants  are  attached. 


Note  jointed  root  stalks  and  that 


1?2  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Perennial  weeds  grow  year  after  year,  or  until  something 
unusual  happens  to  kill  them.  In  this  class  are  found 
the  very  worst  weeds  with  which  the  farmer  has  to  contend. 
Some  of  the  more  common  and  more  troublesome  peren- 
nial weeds  are  quack  grass,  Canada  thistle,  sow  thistle, 
morning-glory,  and  curled  dock.  These  weeds  not  only 
grow  from  seed,  but  persist  in  growing  and  spreading  even 
if  prevented  from  seeding.  They  grow  from  underground 
root  stalks  or  stems.  When  the  land  is  plowed  or  culti- 
vated, instead  of  the  roots'  being  killed  they  are  broken  into 
pieces  which  start  to  grow  and  produce  new  plants. 

To  eradicate  perennial  weeds  is  one  of  the  most  difficult 
jobs  a  farmer  has  to  do.  Many  farmers  do  get  rid  of  them, 
but  some  farmers  just  give  up  and  say  it  cannot  be  done. 
To  kill  them  one  must  not  only  prevent  the  plants  from 
seeding,  but  must  kill  the  roots  as  well.  The  roots  can 
be  killed  only  by  digging  them  out  of  the  ground  and  re- 
moving them  from  the  field,  or  by  starving  them  out.  The 
roots  can  be  starved  only  by  preventing  them  from  forming 
leaves.  This  can  be  done  best  by  plowing  the  land  very 
thoroughly,  and  then  by  disking  and  harrowing  very  care- 
fully and  very  often  for  about  three  months.  This  requires 
lots  of  work,  and  is  very  expensive;  but,  if  the  work  is  care- 
fully done,  even  quack  grass  can  be  eradicated. 

Spraying. — Certain  weeds,  such  as  mustard,  ragweed, 
and  dandelions,  may  be  killed  by  spraying  with  chemicals, 
even  when  growing  in  a  grain  field  without  injuring  the 
grain.  Either  sulphate  of  iron  or  sulphate  of  copper  may 
be  used,  the  former  being  the  cheaper.  The  solution  should 
be  sprayed  on  the  weeds  by  means  of  a  machine  made  for 
this  purpose.  For  mustard  or  dandelions  mix  100  pounds 
of  iron  sulphate  in  50  gallons  of  water.  Stir  thoroughly  and 
spray  on  a  bright  day.  About  50  gallons  is  required  for  an 
acre.  On  the  general  diversified  farm,  however,  where  crops 
are  rotated,  and  hay  and  pasture  crops  and  cultivated  crops 
are  grown,  the  kinds  of  weeds  that  can  be  killed  by  spraying 
are  kept  well  in  check  by  regular  methods  of  cultivation. 

Bulletins. — For  further  information  about  weeds,  how 
to  identify  them  and  eradicate  them,  write  to  your  State 
Experiment  Station  and  ask  for  bulletins  on  weeds. 


WEEDS  AND  THEIR  ERADICATION  133 

Questions: 

1.  Tell  what  you  can  about  annual  weeds.  Name  some  of  them, 
and  tell  how  to  eradicate  them. 

2.  Name  two  common  biennial  weeds,  and  tell  how  to  destroy 
them. 

3.  Name  the  worst  perennial  weeds,  and  tell  how  to  kill  them. 

4.  When  might  spraying  be  preferable  to  other  means  of  erad- 
ication? 

Arithmetic: 

1.  If  a  man's  time  is  worth  16c.  per  hour,  and  each  horse's  time 
is  worth  10c.  per  hour,  how  much  does  it  cost  per  day  for  the  labor  of  a 
man  and  four  horses?     (10  hours  for  a  working  day.) 

2.  If  a  man  and  4  horses  can  harrow  40  acres  per  day,  how  much 
does  it  cost  per  acre  to  harrow  land?  (Is  not  harrowing  a  cheap  way 
to  kill  weeds?) 

3.  Morning-glories  twine  about  and  kill  200  hills  of  corn  on  an 
acre.  What  part  of  the  crop  is  thus  destroyed?  (There  are  3,240 
hills  per  acre.) 

4.  If  iron  sulphate  costs  $20  a  ton,  how  much  would  it  cost  per 
acre  for  material  at  the  rate  of  50  pounds  to  the  acre? 

Exercises: 

1.  Bring  to  school  each  day  a  different  kind  of  a  weed  and  see 
how  long  you  can  continue  bringing  a  different  one  each  day. 

2.  It  will  be  a  very  valuable  exercise  for  you  to  gather,  press  and 
mount  samples  of  all  of  the  weeds  you  can  find,  so  that  you  will  know 
them  wherever  you  see  them. 

3.  Put  a  handful  of  salt  on  a  dandelion  plant  and  see  what  hap- 
pens in  a  day  or  two. 

4.  Bring  to  school  samples  of  uncleaned  grain.  Separate  the 
weed  seeds  from  the  grain.  Learn  to  identify  as  many  different  weed 
seeds  as  you  can. 


CHAPTER  IX 
A  GARDEN 

ITS  IMPORTANCE 

Value. — A  garden  is  a  very  small  but  important  part 
of  a  farm.  After  the  long  winter,  during  which  we  have 
lived  largely  on  bread,  meat,  canned  vegetables  and  fruits, 
there  is  nothing  more  delightful  than  to  get  the  fresh  veg- 
etables from  the  garden.  They  are  succulent,  easily  digest- 
ed,  palatable   and   nutritious. 

A  variety  of  good  vegetables  means  much  to  every 
housewife,  who  must  plan  and  prepare  at  least  one  thousand 
meals  during  the  year.  If  she  has  at  hand  an  abundance 
of  fresh  vegetables  for  summer  use,  and  of  the  same  canned 
for  winter,  the  question  of  preparing  suitable  and  healthful 
meals  is  greatly  simplified. 

For  the  boy  or  girl  who  wishes  to  help  the  mother,  and 
at  the  same  time  learn  a  great  deal  about  soil  and  how  to 
cultivate  it,  about  plants  and  how  to  grow  them,  there 
is  nothing  on  the  farm  that  offers  a  greater  opportunity 
than  the  garden.  A  very  few  minutes  of  well  directed 
effort  will  work  wonders  in  the  production  of  many  vege- 
tables, such  as  radishes,  onions,  etc. 

Income  from  a  Garden. — Some  boys  and  girls,  living 
near  town,  may  earn  considerable  by  caring  for  a  few  va- 
rieties of  vegetables  and  selling  the  surplus  in  town,  But 
l)oys  or  girls  have  right  at  home  a  good  market  for  as  much 
as  they  can  raise.  They  may  not,  and  perhaps  should  not, 
expect  to  receive  money  for  what  they  raise  for  home  use, 
but  they  may  rightly  consider  that  they  earn  all  that  the 
vegetables  would  bring,  if  sold.  Vegetables  have  a  value 
whether  sold  or  used  at  home.  Some  farmers  seem  to  think 
that  their  living  costs  nothing.  It  is  true  that  they  do 
not  pay  out  money  for  much  of  their  food ;  but  if  they  would 
consider,  for  example,  the  vegetables  used  worth  what  might 


A  GARDEN 


13^ 


be  received  for  them,  if  they  were  sold,  every  farmer  would 
see  that  what  is  used  from  a  garden  amounts  to  much, 
and  that  a  garden  is  a  very  important  part  of  a  farm. 
The  boys  and  girls  may  like  to  keep  an  account  of  the 
amount  and  value  of  garden  produce  used,  to  see  how  much 
a  garden  is  really  worth.  Pulling  weeds  may  prove  less 
tedious  to  a  boy  who  is  thinking  of  how,  by  his  efforts,  he 
is  increasing  a  yield  which  he  is  going  to  record. 

An  Accoiint  with  the  Garden. — To  keep  an  account  of 
the  garden  produce,  any  note  book  of  convenient  size  may 
be  used.  Devote  one  or  more  pages  to  each  variety  of 
vegetables.     Each  boy  or  girl  should  consult  his  parents 

and  agree  upon  a  price 
for  the  produce, — such 
as  three  cents  per  dozen 
for  radishes  and  green 
onions,  one  half  a  cent 
a  head  for  lettuce,  fifteen 
cents  a  peck  for  peas, 
string  beans,  etc.  On 
the  page  of  the  account 
book  devoted  to  radishes, 
record  the  price  agreed 
upon  for  radishes;  and 
it  might  make  it  more 
interesting  to  record 
also  the  date   when   the  seed  was    sown. 

As  soon  as  any  variety  begins  to  yield,  put  down  on 
the  page  devoted  to  it  the  date  it  was  first  ready  for  use 
and  the  amount  gathered.  During  the  summer  each  boy 
or  girl  will  find  out  at  night  what  vegetables  were  used  that 
day  and  the  amount  of  each  gathered,  either  for  immediate 
use  or  for  canning,  and  record  the  date  and  amount. 

In  the  fall,  when  everything  has  been  gathered  from 
the  garden,  your  note  book  will  show  the  amount  and 
value  of  each  variety  used,  sold  or  stored.  The  sum  of  the 
values  of  all  the  varieties  of  vegetables  will  be  the  worth 
of  the  garden.  It  would  be  interesting,  also,  to  keep  a  record 
of  any  expense  for  seed  or  stock  and  an  estimate  of  the 
value  of  any  labor  spent  upon  it. 


Figure    59. — Flat    onion    on    left,    globe    on 
right.     Gl  ■  • 

sell  better 


right.     Globe  onions  yield  more  and  usually 
ell  ' 


136  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Questions: 

1.  Why  is  a  garden  important? 

2.  How  does  a  good  garden  help  the  mother? 

3.  How  is  it  of  value  to  a  boy  or  girl? 

4.  How  may  we  find  the  value  of  a  garden? 
Arithmetic: 

1.  How  many  dozen  carrots  in  3  rows  121  ft.  long,  if  the  carrots 
are  2  in.  apart  in  the  row?     How  much  are  they  worth  at  5c.  per  dozen? 

2.  What  part  of  an  acre  is  occupied  by  3  rows  of  carrots  121  ft. 
long,  if  each  row  occupies  a  space  12  in.  wide?  (There  are  43,560  sq. 
ft.  in  an  acre.) 

3.  If  a  boy  spends  2  hours  each  week  for  8  weeks  in  caring  for  3 
rows  of  radishes  121  ft.  long,  how  many  hours  will  he  spend?  How 
much  is  his  time  worth  at  10c.  per  hour? 

PLAN  AND  PREPARATION 

Location. — As  many  trips  are  made  to  a  garden  during 
the  summer,  it  should  be  so  located  that  access  to  it  from 
the  house  is  easy  and  convenient;  and,  instead  of  being 
located  in  some  little  corner  where  most  of  the  work  must 
be  done  by  hand,  it  should  be  accessible  from  the  barn  or 
field,  so  that  most  of  the  work  may  be  done  with  a  horse 
and  cultivator.  A  good  place  for  a  garden  is  on  a  south 
slope  sheltered  by  a  grove. 

Size. — There  is  waste  land  on  most  farms;  and,  as  long 
as  this  is  true,  there  is  no  excuse  for  skimping  the  garden. 
It  should  be  of  sufficient  size  that  room  may  be  given  to 
each  variety  of  vegetable,  to  permit  cultivation  with  horse 
labor.  A  strip  about  a  rod  wide  at  each  end  of  the  garden 
should  be  seeded  to  grass,  on  which  to  turn  when  plowing 
and  cultivating. 

Soil. — The  soil  for  a  garden  should  be  very  rich  and 
productive.  More  work  is  required  per  acre  on  garden 
than  on  field  crops;  hence  the  importance  of  getting  good 
crops  to  pay  for  the  labor.  If  grain  is  sown  on  soil  that 
will  produce  but  half  a  crop,  six  to  ten  dollars  an  acre  is 
lost,  while,  if  but  half  a  crop  is  raised  in  a  garden,  owing  to 
the  poor  condition  of  the  soil,  many  times  as  much  is  lost, 
because  a  good  garden  may  yield  from  $100  to  $500  worth 
of  produce  per  acre. 

Preparation  of  Soil. — Land  for  the  garden  should  be 
heavily  manured.  From  twenty  to  fifty  loads  per  acre 
may  be  used.     Well  rotted  manure  is  best,  but  other  manure 


A  GARDEN 


137 


will  do.  It  is  well  to  plow  in  the  fall,  so  that  the  land  will 
settle  down  and  be  less  likely  to  dry  out.  Fall  plowing  is 
also  helpful  in  destroying  dangerous  insects  and  worms. 
Early  spring  plowing  will  do;  but,  in  either  case,  much  disk- 
ing and  harrowing  should  be  given  the  land  in  the  sprmg, 

so  as  to  make  the  soil  very  fine 
and  mellow  before  the  garden 
seeds  are  planted  This  early 
harrowing  helps  to  warm  up  the 
soil  and  kills  many  weeds;  also 
retards  the  evaporation  of  moist- 
ure. It  is  a  good  plan  to  use 
a  planker  or  pulverizer  to  break 
up  all  lumps,  as  securing  a  fine 
surface  soil  makes  planting  and 
cultivating  much  easier. 

Arrangement. — The  rows 
should  extend  the  long  way  of 
the  garden.  Vegetables  which 
are  planted  in  rows  close  together 
(12  to  20  inches)  as  onions,  rad- 
ishes, carrots,  beets,  lettuce,  tur- 
nips, etc.,  should  be  on  one  side 
of  the  garden.  Cabbage,  beans, 
peas,  sweet  corn,  potatoes,  etc., 
with  rows  23^  to  33^  feet  apart, 
should  be  together.  Such  running 
vines  as  squashes,  melons,  and 
cucumbers,  which  require  rows 
five  to  seven  feet  apart,  should 
be  together  in  another  part  of  the 
garden.  This  arrangement  allows 
the  best  use  of  the  horse  cult- 
ivator. If  a  row  of  onions  and 
a  row  of  potatoes  were  planted  side  by  side,  a  good 
cultivation  of  the  potatoes  would  be  likely  to  cover  the 
onions.  This  plan  also  permits  the  best  use  of  the  small 
hand  drill  in  planting  and  of  the  small  hand  cultivator  in 
cultivating.  Everything  possible  should  be  done,  in  the 
arrangement,  planning  and  preparation  of  the  garden,  to 


GRASS 


Figure  60. — Garden  arranged  for 
convenient  cultivation.  1.  Rows 
14  in.  to  18  in.  apart  for  onions 
lettuce,  beets,  radishes,  turnips, 
carrots.  2.  Rows  about  six  feet 
apart  for  cucumbers,  melons,  etc. 
3.  Rows  three  feet  apart  for  sweet 
corn,  potatoes.  4.  Rows  4  feet 
apart  for  strawberries,  tomatoes, 
«tc.  5.  Asparagus  3  or  4  feet 
from  other  plants.  6.  Rows  about 
6.  feet  apart  for  berry  bushes. 


138  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

reduce  the  amount  of  labor  required  to  plant,  cultivate  and 

harvest  the  crop. 

Questions: 

1.  Why  should  the  garden  be  located  near  the  house? 

2.  What  can  you  say  about  the  soil  and  its  proper  preparation 
for  the  garden? 

3.  What  arrangement  would  you  make  of  the  different  crops 
in  planting? 

Arithmetic: 

1.  How  many  cabbages  can  one  raise  on  an  acre,  if  they  are 
planted  2  ft.  apart  each  way? 

2.  How  many  acres  of  land  in  a  field  10  rods  wide  and  16  rods 
long? 

3.  How  many  rows  of  onions,  planted  with  the  rows  1  foot 
apart,  can  be  planted  on  a  field  10  rods  wide?  If  the  field  is  16  rods 
long,  how  long  will  all  the  rows  of  onions  be? 

SOME  COMMON  VEGETABLES 

Classification. — Vegetables  may  be  classified  under  three 
heads,  according  to  their  ability  to  withstand  climatic  con- 
ditions: 

(1)  Winter  vegetables,  or  those  that  can  be  left  in  the 
ground  all  winter  without  injury,  such  as  rhubarb,  asparagus, 
horse-radish  and  parsnips; 

(2)  Hardy  spring  vegetables,  or  those  that  are  not  in- 
jured by  frost  in  the  spring,  such  as  onions,  radishes,  lettuce, 
cabbage,  cauliflower,  Swiss  chard,  peas,  rutabagas,  carrots, 
and  celery; 

(3)  Tender  vegetables,  or  those  that  are  killed  by  frost, 
such  as  beans,  tomatoes,  melons,  corn,  cucumbers  and  squash. 

Varieties. — There  are  usually  several  varieties  of  each 
class  of  vegetables.  For  example,  in  tomatoes,  there  is 
the  EarHana,  Beauty,  Ponderosa,  Stone,  Early  Red,  Acme, 
Dwarf  Champion,  etc.;  in  peas,  the  American  Wonder, 
Marrowfat,  Telephone,  First  and  Best,  Extra  Early,  etc. 
It  is  important  for  the  home  gardener  to  grow  only  the 
varieties  that  one  likes  personally.  In  market  gardening 
one's  personal  tastes  should  not  be  considered,  but  it  is 
necessary  to  study  very  carefully  the  market  demand  and 
grow  what  will  sell  readily  whether  it  appeals  to  you  or  not. 
A  very  desirable  vegetable  for  the  home  garden  may  be 
almost  valueless  in  a  market  garden,  because  it  will  not 
stand  handling. 


A  GARDEN 


139 


Marketing. — It  seems  to  be  quite  generally  believed  that 
fanning  consists  simply  in  growing  things.  This  idea  does 
not  represent  the  case.  Products  must  be  sold  to  advantage 
or  there  is  no  profit  in  growing  them.  Vegetables  are  dif- 
ficult to  market,  because  most  garden  products  deteriorate 
very  rapidly  after  being  harvested.  It  is,  therefore,  im- 
portant that  one  give  very  careful  study  to  the  selection  of 
varieties,  growing  products  of  good  quality,  harvesting  at 

the  proper  time  and  in 
the  proper  way,  packing 
them  in  an  attractive,  con- 
venient package,  and  then 
delivering  them  promptly 
and  in  good  condition, 
when  they  are  wanted. 

Perennial  Sorts. — 
Asparagus,  horse  -  radish 
and  rhubarb  are  peren- 
nials; that  is,  they  grow 
year  after  year  without 
being  replanted.  It  is 
important,  therefore,  to 
start  them  where  they  are 
wanted  permanently. 
Roots  are  usually  secured 
rather  than  seed,  and  set 
out  in  good  rich,  mellow 
soil.  If  the  soil  is  kept 
cultivated  and  well  fertiUzed,  it  is  necessary  to  harvest 
only  what  is  wanted.  Parsnips  are  biennial;  that  is,  they 
live  but  two  years.  Seed  is  planted  in  the  spring  early  and 
rather  thickly,  so  as  to  insure  a  good  stand.  The  plants 
are  thinned  out  later,  leaving  a  plant  every  two  to  four 
inches  in  the  row.  The  roots,  the  part  eaten,  may  be  dug 
in  the  fall,  and  stored,  or,  if  preferred,  the  roots  may  be  left 
in  the  ground  all  winter  and  harvested  in  the  spring. 

Hardy  Vegetables. — Onions  are  a  popular  and  important 
vegetable.  They  are  grown  chiefly  from  seed,  planted  as 
early  in  the  spring  as  the  soil  may  be  prepared.  The  seed 
is  sown  in  drills  from  twelve  inches  to  sixteen  inches  apart. 


Rgure  61. — Some  notable  turnips. 


140  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

The  soil  is  kept  well  cultivated  and  free  from  weeds.  When 
the  plants  are  about  two  inches  high,  they  are  thinned  to 
leave  about  one  plant  about  every  two  inches.  When  the 
tops  weaken  just  above  the  onion  and  die  down,  the  onions 
are  pulled,  dried,  topped  and  stored.  Quite  small  onions 
are  sometimes  pulled  and  dried  and  kept  over  winter,  then 
set  out  in  the  spring.  They  grow  quickly  and  furnish  green 
onions  early.     They  are  called  sets. 


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BHHHHH^>''  A^^js^itmi^^f' 

''''mim\-m} 

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Figure  62. — A  field  of  onions. 

Radishes  are  grown  from  seed.  They  require  rich, 
moist  soil,  and  unless  grown  rapidly  are  very  inferior  in 
quality.  The  seed  is  sown  early  in  the  spring  for  an  early 
crop.  Several  plantings  are  usually  made  at  intervals  of 
two  or  three  weeks  for  later  use.  Radishes  should  be  large 
enough  to  use  in  four  to  six  weeks  after  the  seed  is  planted. 

Peas  are  sown  early  in  spring;  early  varieties  for  early 
use,  later  varieties  for  later  use.  They  are  sown  in  drills 
from  two  and  a  half  to  four  feet  apart,  depending  upon  the 
variety.  It  is  desirable  in  small  gardens  to  furnish  something 
on  which  the  vines  may  climb,  as  they  are  not  strong  enough 
to  stand  erect  alone.   Dwarf  varieties  need  no  support. 

Lettuce,  carrots  and  Swiss  chard  are  grown  in  about 


A  GARDEN  141 

the  same  way  as  radishes.  Cabbage  and  cauHflower  are 
usually  transplanted;  that  is,  the  seed  is  sown  in  boxes 
in  the  house  or  greenhouse  for  early  varieties,  or  in  beds  in 
the  garden  for  later  varieties.  Then  the  small  plants  are 
later  set  out  in  the  field  where  they  are  to  grow. 

Celery  is  not  commonly  grown,  but  it  should  be,  and 
may  be  grown  on  any  good  com  soil.  It  requires  rich, 
moist  soil.  The  seed  is  first  sown  in  boxes,  or  beds,  and 
transplanted.  It  is  often  transplanted  twice,  first  from  the 
small  beds  or  boxes  to  larger  beds,  then  later  to  the  field. 
For  early  varieties  the  seed  is  sown  a  month  or  more  before 
the  soil  outside  can  be  worked.  For  late  varieties  it  is  sown 
after  the  soil  outside  is  in  good  condition.  The  plants  are 
set  in  well  prepared,  rich  soil,  in  rows  three  to  four  feet 
apart,  and  the  plants  about  six  inches  apart  in  the  row. 
Celery  is  kept  cultivated  as  any  crop.  Sometimes  a  mulch 
of  manure  or  straw  is  placed  between  the  rows  to  check  the 
growth  of  weeds,  and  retain  moisture.  It  is  necessary  to 
keep  soil  packed  against  the  plants  on  either  side  to  keep 
them  from  spreading.  Celery  is  always  bleached  before 
it  is  used.  This  may  be  done  by  placing  boards  on  either 
side  of  the  rows,  or  by  banking  up  the  rows  with  soil  from 
between  the  rows.  If  the  celery  is  to  be  used  in  the  winter, 
it  is  put  into  the  cellar  green,  then  bleached  as  needed. 
Bleaching  is  merely  growing  celery  away  from  the  hght. 
Celery  is  stored  in  the  cellar  by  packing  the  plants  tightly 
in  boxes  with  sand  in  the  bottom  into  which  the  roots  are 
placed.  It  is  kept  as  cool  as  possible  without  freezing. 
To  bleach  in  the  cellar,  keep  the  plants  moist  and  warm 
enough  so  that  t^ey  will  grow. 

Tender  Vegetables. — Beans  are  planted  in  the  spring 
after  all  danger  of  frost  is  past,  in  rows  two  to  two  and  a 
half  feet  apart,  and  with  from  three  to  six  seeds  per  foot 
in  the  row.  Good  clean  cultivation  is  all  that  is  required. 
String  beans  are  secured  from  varieties  planted  especially 
for  that  purpose.  Shelled  beans,  the  navy  varieties,  are 
usually   planted. 

Sweet  corn  is  planted  and  cultivated  the  same  as  field 
corn,  except  usually  in  a  much  smaller  way. 


142  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Tomatoes  are  grown  from  seed  planted,  usually  in 
boxes  in  the  house,  in  greenhouses,  or  in  sheltered  places. 
When  all  danger  of  frost  is  past,  the  plants  are  transplanted 
to  the  field  or  garden.  A  very  few  plants  will  supply  the 
needs  of  the  family. 

Melons,  cucumbers  and  squash  are  very  tender  and 
easily  killed  by  frost.  They  are  planted  usually  in  hills 
from  six  to  nine  feet  apart  each  way,  on  rich  well  prepared 
land.  They  require  cultivation  and  plenty  of  moisture. 
Questions: 

1.  Name* three  classes  of  vegetables  and  several  common  vege- 
tables to  be  found  under  each  class. 

2.  Describe  briefly  the  methods  you  would  use  in  growing  a 
crop  of  onions;  a  crop  of  celery. 

3.  Tell  all  you  can  about  marketing  vegetables. 
Arithmetic: 

1.  If  one  applies  25  tons  of  manure  per  acre,  how  much  does  it 
cost  at  $2.50  per  ton? 

2.  If  an  acre  of  onions  yields  600  bushels,  what  is  the  value  of 
the  crop  at  85c.  per  bushel? 

3.  How  many  celery  plants  can  one  produce  on  an  acre  with 
rows  3  ft.  apart  and  plants  6  in.  aoart  in  the  row?  (There  are  43,560 
sq.  ft.  in  an  acre.) 

Exercises: 

1.  Make  a  list  of.  all  the  different  things  that  you  eat  that 
come  from  the  garden. 

2.  Draw  a  map  of  your  home  garden  and  then  make  a  chart  of 
it  showing  what  you  would  plant  to  have  a  good  well-balanced  garden. 
Show  the  distance  apart  vou  would  plant  the  rows.  (See  chart,  page 
128.) 

3.  Who  raises  the  best  garden  in  the  neighborhood?  Visit  this 
garden  and  ask  all  the  questions  you  can  of  the  owner  so  as  to  find  out 
why  this  is  the  best  garden.  Then  write  a  short  story  telling  how  to 
raise  a  good  garden.  • 

4.  Are  you  a  member  of  a  boys'  and  girls'  garden  club?  If  not, 
organize  such  a  club  in  your  school.  You  will  not  only  help  yourself, 
but  you  will  help  all  the  boys  and  girls  who  join  and  your  school  as 
well.  Your  teacher  or  your  county  superintendent  can  help  you  t(* 
get  a  garden  club  started. 


CHAPTER  X 
FRUIT  ON  THE  FARM 

ADVANTAGES  OF  FRXHT 

Succulent  Food. — That  fruit  is  a  healthful  form  of 
food  is  recognized  by  all,  yet  there  are  many  persons  liv- 
ing on  farms  who  seldom  have  as  much  fruit  as  is  neces- 
sary for  the  health  and  comfort  of  the  family.     The  need 


r^^^k^m 

^^^ 

Figure  63. — An  exhibit  of  fine  apples 


of  succulent  food  for  animals  is  met  by  supplying  ensilage 
or  roots,  yet  in  many  homes  the  need  of  succulence  in  the 
family  diet,  though  as  necessary  and  easily  suppUed,  is 
apparently  not  recognized.  Although  the  juices  of  fruits 
help  to  supply  the  body  with  liquid  and  furnish  it  with 


144  ELEMENTib  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

needful  mineral  substances,  these  products  are  especially 
acceptable  and  suitable  items  of  diet  during  the  warmer 
months,  when  we  do  not  desire  so  much  food  of  a  heat- 
producing  nature. 

Home  Products. — The  home-grown  fruits  surpass  any 
that  can  be  purchased;  for  during  the  summer  they  may 
be  had  clean  and  fresh,  and  are  very  different  from  the  dusty 
and  inferior  ones  which  are  often  all  that  the  markets  have 
to  offer.  Such  fresh  fruit  is  equally  as  much  better  than 
the   market    product    when    canned. 

Another  great  advantage  in  raising  fruit  is  that  the 
family  will  then  be  well  supplied,  while  there  are  few  farm 
families  that  will  pay  the  necessary  price  to  secure  the 
amount  needed,   if  it  must  be  purchased. 

Every  housekeeper  knows  the  value  of  a  good  supply 
of  fresh  fruit  during  the  summer  and  fall  and  the  pleasure 
that  is  derived  from  the  canned  fruit  stored  away  for  winter 
use.  The  jellies  and  preserves  form  a  healthful  and  pala- 
table dessert  at  any  time,  and  are  always  ready. 

Canned  fruit  juice,  which  may  be  had  in  large  quanti- 
ties where  fruit  is  plentiful,  is  perhaps  the  most  appetizing 
and  healthful  drink  for  the  sick,  and  is  equally  as  refreshing 
for  those  who  are  well. 

Ease  of  Supply. — It  is  neither  laborious  nor  expensive 
to  provide  an  abundance  of  both  large  and  small  fruits. 
A  small  patch  of  strawberries  will  produce  more  than  plenty 
for  an  ordinary  family.  Raspberries,  gooseberries  and  cur- 
rants may  be  grown  at  little  loss  of  space  along  the  garden 
fence.  A  small  orchard,  also,  will  more  than  suffice  for  fam- 
ily needs.  Ordinary  cultivation  and  occasional  spraying 
are  the  only  demands  upon  labor.  With  this  attention, 
however,  the  results  from  every  point  of  view  will  be  bene- 
ficial and  delightful. 
Questions: 

1.  What  kind  of  food  do  we  need  in  addition  to  the  protein, 
carbohydrates  and  fats? 

2.  What  class  of  foods  supply  bulk  and  succulence? 

3.  What  are  the  advantages  of  raising  fruit  for  home  use? 
Arithmetic: 

1.  If  a  family  of  six  uses  1  qt.  of  canned  fruit  per  day,  how  many 
quarts  will  they  use  in  6  months? 

2.  If  a  family  of  six  uses  the  equivalent  of  13^  quarts  of  fresh 


FRUIT  ON  THE  FARM  145 

fruit  per  day,  how  many  quarts  would  be  required  to  supply  them  a 
year?     How  much  are  these  berries  worth  at  10c.  per  quart? 

3.  If  a  man  spends  5  hours  per  week  for  12  weeks  caring  for  fruit, 
to  produce  enough  fruit  for  a  family  of  six  as  given  in  example  2,  how 
many  hours  would  he  spend?     What  is  his  time  worth  at  15c.  per  hour? 

STRAWBERRIES 

Adaptability. — The  strawberry  may  be  grown  in  almost 
any  locality,  from  the  far  north  to  the  extreme  south.  It 
is  the  most  widely  distributed  of  the  cultivated  fruits,  and 
perhaps  the  most  universally  popular. 

Varieties. — There  are  several  hundred  varieties  of  straw- 
berries listed.  Some  varieties  are  particularly  adapted 
to  the  cooler  summers  and  to  the  soil  conditions  of  the 
northern  districts,  while  others  are  adapted  more  partic- 
ularly to  the  southern  conditions.  At  least  one  or  more 
varieties  may  be  selected  for  any  district. 

There  are  varieties  of  strawberries  that  have  imper- 
fect or  pistillate  flowers,  and  varieties  that  have  perfect 
flowers,  or  flowers  containing  both  stamens  and  pistils. 
The  perfect  may  be  distinguished  from  the  imperfect  only 
by  the  flower.  When  buying  plants,  one  must  depend 
upon  the  knowledge  and  honesty  of  the  dealer  to  secure 
either  plants  with  perfect  flowers  or  a  sufficient  number  of 
them  to  properly  fertilize  the  pistillate  flowers.  The  pis- 
tillate varieties  are  often  the  best  bearers,  and  are  not  ob- 
jectionable when  planted  with  staminate  varieties,  but  are 
fruitless  when  planted  alone.  However,  to  simplify  matters 
it  is  wise  for  the  amateur  to  select  the  perfect  varieties. 

Soil. — It  is  generally  conceded  that  strawberries  are 
most  successfully  raised  on  sandy  or  gravelly  loam.  New 
clover  sod  makes  a  desirable  soil,  but  it  is  not  safe  to  use 
old  sod  land,  on  account  of  the  larvae  of  many  injurious 
insects  which  are  likely  to  be  in  the  soil  and  feed  upon  the 
young  plants.  To  guard  against  such,  it  is  well  to  have  the 
strawberry  crop  follow  some  cultivated  crop,  as  potatoes, 
beans  or  corn,  for  the  cultivation  is  quite  likely  to  kill  the 
larvae. 

Preparation  of  the  Soil. — The  land  should  be  well  fer- 
tilized. For  four  rows  one  hundred  feet  long,  about  what 
vould  supply  the  ordinary  family,  a  load  of  well  decomposed 

10— 


146  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

stable  manure  is  needed.  It  is  preferable  to  plow  this 
under  in  the  fall.  The  surface  should  be  kept  pulverized 
in  the  spring,  until  it  is  ready  for  the  plants. 

The  Plants. — Strawberries  are  propagated  by  runners. 
The  runners  grow  out  from  the  old  plants,  and  at  the  joints 
take  root  and  form  new  plants.     It  is  these  new  plants 


Figure  64. — A  strawberry  bed  with  straw  raked  between  the  rows   for  winter  pro- 
tection.    It  holds  moisture  and  checks  the  growth  of  weeds. 

which  should  be  set  out.  They  are  distinguished  from  the 
old  by   their  white   roots.     Old    plants    have   dark  roots. 

The  plants,  when  taken  up  to  be  transplanted,  should 
be  trimmed  of  dead  leaves  or  of  too  large  a  growth  of  leaves, 
and  of  all  pieces  of  runners.  Many  roots  are  desirable; 
but,  as  they  may  make  planting  difficult,  the  large  roots  are 
usually  trimmed. 

If  the  plants  purchased  seem  weak  or  wilted,  or  if  the 
field  at  the  time  is  exceedingly  dry,  they  should  not  be  set 
immediately.  It  is  much  safer  to  shake  them  out  well  and 
put  them  close  together  in  a  row,  where  they  may  be  easily 
protected  from  the  wind  and  kept  well  watered.  Here 
they  will  freshen,  perhaps  start  to  grow,  and  be  ready  for 
the  field  when  conditions  there  are  more  favorable. 


FRUIT  O.Y    THE  FARM  147 

Setting  of  Plants. — Strawberry  plants  may  be  set  out 
at  any  time,  from  early  spring  until  midsummer,  provided 
the  plants  are  strong  and  the  ground  moist.  Tlie  earlier 
they  are  set,  however,  the  better,  as  they  then  have  a  longer 
growing  season  and  the  roots  seem  to  form  more  abundantly 
in  the  cooler  weather  of  spring. 

In  setting  the  plants,  the  roots  should  be  shaken  or 
spread  out  as  naturally  as  possible  and  the  dirt  firmly 
packed  about  them.  Care  must  be  taken  to  set  the  plants 
the  right  depth.  The  terminal  bud  should  not  be  hidden, 
yet  the  upper  portion  of  the  root  should  be  well  covered. 
The  safe  rule  is  to  set  the  plants  as  nearly  as  possible  the 
depth  they  were  before. 

System  of  Planting. — Strawberries  are  either  set  in  hills 
three  by  three  feet  apart,  or  in  matted  rows.  When  set 
in  matted  rows,  the  common  practice  is  to  set  out  single 
rows  four  feet  apart,  plants  twelve  inches  apart  in  the  rows. 
The  runners  are  then  allowed  to  cover  a  space  of  from  six 
to  nine  inches  on  either  side  of  the  plants,  making  a  matted 
row  from  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  wide  and  leaving  a  space 
of  from  thirty  to  thirty-six  inches  between  the  rows  for 
cultivation  and  convenience  in  harvesting.  This  space  may 
be  reduced,  and  there  is  one  advantage  in  the  narrower 
space — ^i.  e.,  the  runners  may  be  allowed  to  occupy  it  and 
the  old  row  be  plowed  up.     This  saves  resetting. 

Cultivation. — Cultivation  should  be  shallow,  yet  deep 
enough  to  destroy  weeds  and  frequent  enough  to  keep  the 
surface  well  pulverized  and  to  maintain  a  surface  mulch. 
Moisture  is  then  more  readily  admitted  and  evaporation  is 
checked  to  a  considerable  extent. 

Care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the  plants  from  getting 
too  thick  in  the  row.  If  too  thick,  they  are  less  vigorous 
and  produce  smaller  and  poorer  berries.  When  set  in  rows, 
enough  new  plants  may  be  set  to  make  a  continuous  row  12  to 
18  inches  wide,  with  plants  not  nearer  together  than  6  inches. 

To  protect  the  plants  from  frequent  freezing  and  thaw- 
ing, a  mulch  is  applied.  It  is  usually  of  coarse  material, 
as  hay,  corn  stalks,  or  str-^w,  and  is  applied  late  in  autumn 
or  in  tho  early  winter.  It  should  protect  the  plants,  ye|; 
not  smother  them.     Ordinuri'y  it  should  be  about  three 


148  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

inches  thick  and  extend  over  the  entire  bed.  In  the  spring 
most  of  the  mulch  is  taken  from  over  the  row  and  put  in 
the  spaces  between,  where  it  preserves  moisture  and  keeps 
down  weeds.  The  portion  left  on  the  row  aids  in  keeping 
the  fruit  off  the  ground. 
Questions: 

1.  What  is  the  best  soil  for  strawberries? 

2.  How  should  the  soil  be  prepared? 

3.  What  can  you  say  of  the  plants  to  be  set? 

4.  When  and  how  should  plants  be  set? 

5.  What  care  should  the  strawberry  bed  receive? 
Arithmetic: 

1.  If  strawberry  plants  are  set  in  rows  4  ft.  apart  and  plants  2 
ft.  apart  in  the  row,  how  long  will  four  rows  need  to  be  to  accommo- 
date 200  plants?     How  much  space  will  they  occupy? 

2.  If  strawberries  yield  3,000  quarts  per  acre,  how  much  is  the 
crop  worth  at  10c.  per  quart? 

3.  If  strawberries  yield  3,000  quarts  per  acre,  how  many  quarts 
should  4  rows  100  ft.  long  and  4  ft.  apart  yield? 

RASPBERRIES 

Adaptability. — The  raspberry,  like  the  strawberry,  has 
some  species  which  are  adapted  to  almost  every  locality. 
One  type  of  the  red  raspberry  extends  over  a  territory  from 
Arizona  to  Alaska.  There  seems,  however,  to  be  no  variety 
adapted  to  conditions  in  the  western  Dakotas,  eastern 
Montana,  and  Wyoming,  or  for  parts  of  California,  New 
Mexico  anJiTexas. 

Varieties. — The  name  raspberry,  as  we  use  the  term 
to-day,  embraces  four,  species  of  plants,  the  European,  a 
foreign  species,  the  Native  Red,  the  Black  Cap  and  the 
Purple  Cane,  a  cross  between  Black  Cap  and  Red  Rasp- 
berry. 

Soil. — In  their  wild  state,  raspberries  are  frequently 
found  growing  upon  a  variety  of  soils,  but,  like  other  crops, 
they  thrive  better  and  yield  more  abundantly  upon  moderate- 
ly rich  soil.  The  varieties  of  red  raspberries  seem  to  require 
for  best  production  a  richer  soil  than  most  of  the  varieties 
of  black  raspberries,  the  former  giving  larger  yields  on  moist 
clay  loam  and  the  latter  on  sandy  loam.  Preferably  rasp- 
berries should  follow  a  cultivated  crop.  Beans,  peas,  and 
potatoes  are  good  preparatory  crops. 

Propagation. — The  red  raspberries  are   propagated   by 


FRUIT  ON   THE  FARM 


149 


root  sprouts.  Young  succulent  plants  may  be  transplanted, 
if  a  part  of  the  parent  root  is  taken  with  them;  but  one- 
year-old  root  sprouts  are  better.  The  purple  raspberries  may 
be  propagated  by  sprouts  or  by  tip  layering,  according  to 
variety. 

The  black  raspberries  are  propagated  by  stolons  or 
layers.  To  secure  new  plants,  the  branches  are  bent  over 
some  time  during  the  summer  and  their  tips  covered  lightly 
with  earth.     They  then  root  quickly.     These  new  plants 


Figure  65. — Uncovering  raspberries  in  the  spring.     They  are  laid  down  in  the  fall 
and  covered  with  earth  to  protect  them  from  thawing  and  freezing, 

are  left  attached  to  the  old  plant  until  the  following  spring, 
when  the  old  stem  or  branch  is  cut  about  eight  inches  above 
the  new  roots.     The  plants  are  then  ready  for  transplanting. 

Setting  of  Plants. — The  red  raspberries  may  be  set  out 
during  either  spring  or  fall,  fall  setting  perhaps  being  more 
generally  favored,  as  sprouts  come  out  very  early  in  the 
spring  and  are  very  liable  to  be  broken  off,  if  transplanting 
is  attempted  at  this  season. 

The  black  raspberries,  tip  rooters,  should  be  trans- 
planted in  the  spring,  as  they  are  almost  sure  to  winter- 
kill if  disturbed  in  the  fall. 


150  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Plants  of  either  kind  are  usually  set  two  in  a  hill,  hills 
three  feet  apart  and  rows  seven  feet  apart.  If  the  rows 
extend  north  and  south,  the  fruit  during  ripening  time  will 
be  somewhat  shaded  by  the  new  growth,  which  is  an  ad  van- 
age.  The  spacing  may  be  reduced,  but  wide  spacing  has 
some  advantages,  chief  among  which  is  the  fact  that  it 
admits  plenty  of  sunshine  and  makes  cultivation  possible 
even  when  the  branches  are  bearing  fruit. 

When  the  new  plants  are  set,  they  are  cut  off  close  to 
the  ground,  and  are  not  allowed  to  bear  fruit  the  first  year. 

The  red  raspberries,  propagated  by  root  sprouts,  should 
be  set  a  little  deeper  than  they  were  originally.  The  black 
raspberries,  propagated  by  stolons  or  layers,  should  be  set 
about  their  original  depth. 

Cixltivation. — Clean  cultivation  is  especially  necessary 
for  the  red  raspberry,  as  it  spreads  rapidly  if  not  checked, 
soon  exhausting  its  vitality.  The  spaces  between  the  hedges 
should  be  plowed  at  least  once  a  year,  and  perhaps  less  in- 
jury is  done  to  the  roots  if  spring  plowing  is  practiced.  The 
subsequent  cultivating  should  loosen  the  soil  only  to  a  depth 
of  two  or  three  inches. 

Pruning. — Raspberries  require  summer  and  winter  prun- 
ing. The  summer  pruning  consists  in  stopping  the  young 
shoots  when  they  are  about  eighteen  inches  high.  This 
tends  to  produce  branches  and  root  sprouts  and  so  increase 
the  wood  growth.  In  the  winter  cut  out  aU  stems  that 
have  produced  fruit,  and  dead   and   diseased   ones. 

Winter  Protection. — In  some  severe  climates  raspber- 
ries need  winter  protection.  The  roots  are  loosened  at  one 
side  of  each  plant,  and  the  top  is  bent  over  and  covered 
with  earth.  A  layer  of  corn  fodder  or  straw  may  be  added 
later,  if  more  protection  seems  warranted.  This  covering 
should  be  removed  in  the  spring,  and  the  plants  raised  as 
soon  as  danger  of  freezing  and  thawing  is  past. 
Questions: 

1.  How  general  is  raspberry  culture? 

2.  How  many  types  of  raspberries  are  there? 

3.  What  soil  does  each  type  require? 

4.  How  is  each  type  propagated? 

5.  Tell  what  you  can  of  time  and  manner  of  setting  each  type? 

6.  Describe  cultivation  and  pruning  of  each  type. 


FRVIT  ON  THE  FARM 


151 


Arithmetic: 

1.  If  one  plants  4  rows  of  raspberries  100  ft.  long,  with  2  plants- 
per  hill  2  ft.  apart  in  the  row,  how  many  plants  are  required? 

2.  If  one  has  four  100-ft.  rows  of  raspberries,  rows  7  ft.  apartj 
how  much  space  do  they  occupy? 

3.  If  raspberries  yield  2,500  qts.  per  acre,  how  many  quarts 
should  one  get  from  a  patch  28  ft.  by  100  ft.? 

APPLES 

Adaptability. — ^By  selection  and  grafting,  varieties  of 
apples  have  been  obtained  which  are  very  hardy  and  adapt 
themselves  to  wide  ranges  of  territory  and  vast  differences 
in  temperature.  Apple-growing  is  no  longer  confined  to- 
the  warmer  portions  of  the  South,  but  is  a  possibility  in  the 
colder  sections  of  the  North.  Some  very  choice  apples 
are  raised  in  districts  of  short  summers  and  cold  winters. 

SoU.— The  chief  re- 
quirement of  soil  for 
apple  production 
seems  to  be  that  it 
contains  an  abund- 
ance of  plant  food. 
The  poorer  the  soil, 
the  more  careful  man- 
agement becomes  nec- 
essary. The  best  con- 
dition for  apples 
seems  to  be  a  rich, 
well-drained  soil  that 
will  retain  moisture. 
Preparation  of  the 
Soil. — Some  prefer  to 
raise  apples  in  a  sod- 
ded tract.  Wheresuch 
is  the  case,  good  clover 
or  prairie  sod  need  not 
be  broken  up.  Holes 
should  be  dug  large 
enough  to  accommo- 
_         ^     ^. , .  ,  date  the  tree  without 

Rgure     66.— Piclang     apples.     Note     care         p^owdinff     \U    roots 
taken     to    prevent    bruising,    as    bruised  CrOWOmg     IIS     TOOlb. 

apples  do  not  keep  well.  Where  Cultivation  01 


152  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

the  orchard  is  planned  the  soil  should  be  brought  into  a  til- 
lable condition  before  trees  are  set.  The  latter  is  undoubt- 
edly the  more  successful  method. 

The  Trees. — In  selecting  trees  to  set,  perhaps  more 
attention  should  be  paid  to  the  roots  than  to  the  shape 
of  the  top.  The  essentials  are  a  good  root  system  and  a 
thrifty  top. 

Apple  trees  do  not  come  true  from  seed.  That  is,  seed 
from  Ben  Davis  apples  will*not  produce  Ben  Davis  apple 
trees.  Trees  true  to  variety  are  secured  by  grafting  branches 
of  trees  of  desired  varieties  on  roots  secured  by  planting 
apple  seeds.  In  severe  climates  it  is  very  essential  that 
these  roots  be  hardy.  To  be  sure  of  getting  suitable  stock, 
it  is  wise  to  order  trees  for  planting  only  from  dealers  in  whom 
you  have  confidence.  Trees  should  not  be  more  than  four 
years  or  'leiso  than  one  year  old. 

Trees  for  northern  growers  should  be  taken  from  the 
Qursery  in  the  fall,  and  kept  through  the  winter  in  a  cool 
cellar  or  be  buried  in  trenches  in  the  field. 

Setting  the  Trees. — In  sections  of  severe  winters,  apple 
trees  should  be  set  in  the  spring,  as  they  are  almost  sure 
to  winter-kill,  if  set  in  the  fall.  In  sections  particularly 
adapted  to  apple  culture,  the  trees  may  be  taken  from  the 
nursery  in  the  spring  and  set  out.  They  may  also  be  set 
in  the  fall.  The  spring  planting,  however,  is  likely  to  be 
more   successful   than   the   fall   planting. 

The  depth  to  set  apple  trees  will  vary  according  to 
the  slope  of  the  land  and  the  quality  of  the  soil.  On  steep 
hillsides  they  must  be  set  deeply  enough  to  prevent  the 
roots  from  coming  to  the  surface.  In  rich  soil,  four  or  five 
inches  deeper  than  they  were  set  originally  is  adequate. 
Sandy  light  soil  will  require  deeper  setting. 

In  sections  where  apple  trees  grow  large,  they  should 
be  set  from  thirty-five  to  forty  feet  apart.  In  sections 
where  trees  do  not  attain  so  large  a  size,  they  may  be  set 
from  twenty-five  to  thirty  feet  apart,  and  trees  in  one  row 
alternate  with  those  in  the  next.  As  a  protection  agailnst 
sun  scald,  trees  should  lean  a  little  to  the  southwest. 

Cultivation. — If  the  orchard  is  to  be  cultivated,  some 
crop  which  requires  cultivation  in  early  summer  but  none 


FRUIT  ON  THE  FARM 


153 


in  the  fall,  may  be  grown.  Corn  and  early  potatoes  are 
often  planted;  and  in  some  eastern  states,  where  there  is 
a  great  demand  for  tomatoes  for  the  canneries,  this  crop 
is  profitable,  and  the  cultivation  beneficial  to  the  orchard. 
Mulching. — There  are  arguments  for  and  against  mulch- 
ing. Where  cultivation  is  impossible,  a  mulch  of  straw, 
hay  or  any  coarse  material,  should  be  maintained.     A  mulch 


Figure  67. — A  well  kept  apple  orchard. 

of  stable  manure  is  beneficial  to  young  trees,  but  should 
not  touch  them. 

Where  mulching  is  practiced,  it  should  be  renewed  when 
grass  begins  to  grow  up  through  it,  and  should  cover  as 
large  or  a  larger  space  than  the  roots  are  likely  to  permeate. 

Each  spring  the  mulching  should  be  removed,  the  ground 
around  the  tree  well  spaded,  and  a  mulch  replaced. 

The  chief  objections  to  mulching  are  that  it  tends  to 
encourage  growth  of  roots  towards  the  surface,  and  fur- 
nishes a  home  for  injurious  insects.  These  objections 
may  be  oversome  by  removing  the  mulch  in  the  spring  and 
replacing  it  in  the  fall. 

Pruning. — The  objects  in  pruning  are  to  direct  the  growth 
of  the  tree,  to  admit  sunhght,  and  to  maintain  the  vigor 
and  vitality  of  the  tree.     Trees  well  exposed  to  sun  and  wind 


154  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

will  need  less  pruning  or  thinning  of  branches  than  trees  in 
more  sheltered  places.  Old,  neglected  trees  may  be  bene- 
fited by  pruning,  as  the  remaining  branches  will  receive 
more  of  the  sap  gathered  by  the  roots  as  the  foliage  area  is 
reduced.  If  the  trees  are  badly  in  need  of  pruning,  it  is 
well  to  remove  only  a  portion  of  the  surplus  branches  the 
first  year,  and  continue  the  pruning  the  following  years, 

A  limb  that  crosses  another,  or  is  too  near  another, 
should  be  removed  as  well  as  all  diseased  portions. 

Pruning  may  be  done  on  warm  days  in  early  spring. 
It  is  safer  not  to  prune  when  the  twigs  are  frozen,  yet  the 
pruning  should  be  done  before  the  sprouts  start.  A  branch 
or  twig  should  be  cut  off  close  to  the  trunk  or  the  branch, 
as  such  cuts  heal  more  quickly  than  if  a  stub  is  left.  The 
scars  made  should  be  covered  with  grafting  wax  or  some 
similar  substance.  Pure  linseed  oil  and  white  lead  are 
successfully  used. 

Spraying. — Apples  of  the  best  quality,  size  and  color 
cannot  be  grown  on  trees  that  are  diseased  or  infested  by 
insects.  All  parts  of  the  apple  tree — roots,  branches,  leaves 
and  fruit — are  liable  to  be  attacked  by  pests  of  many  kinds. 
Each  kind  of  insect  as,  for  example,  the  codling  worm,  and 
each  kind  of  disease  as,  for  instance,  apple  scab,  may  be 
warded  off  or  killed  by  spraying.  Apple  pests  are  referred 
to  briefly  in  Chapter  XI.  Write  to  your  state  experiment 
station  for  further  information. 

Thinning. — As  soon  in  their  development  as  the  apples 
begin  to  show  imperfections,  or  about  the  time  that  the 
June  fall  occurs,  approximately  half  of  the  crop  may  be 
removed  with  profit.  Every  apple  that  shows  disease  or 
injury  should  be  picked,  observing  to  thin  the  fruit  in  pro- 
portion throughout  the  tree.  The  vigor  of  the  tree  is  thus 
maintained  and  its  strength  is  expended  on  the  smaller  part 
of  the  crop  that  remains.  It  naturally,  therefore,  attains 
a  greater  size  and  better  color.  The  tree  is  also  likely  to 
become  a  more  regular  bearer,  and  insects  and  diseases  are 
destroyed. 

Picking. — Fruit  should  be  picked  from  an  orchard  step- 
ladder  and  placed  in  a  cloth-lined  basket  or  a  galvanized 
iron  pail.     Generally  speaking,  when  apples  are  to  be  shipped, 


FRUIT  ON   THE  FARM  155 

they  should  be  picked  before  they  are  fully  ripe.  Ripeness 
•can  be  judged  by  the  color  of  the  fruit  and  the  ease  with 
which  the  stem  is  separated  from  the  tree.  In  picking  the 
stem  should  be  allowed  to  remain  attached  to  the  apple. 

Storage. — Apples  keep  best  when  stored  in  a  uniform 
temperature  of  from  30  to  32  degrees  F.  The  air  also  should 
be  moist,  saturated  to  about  80  per  cent.  If  the  temperature 
is  too  high,  the  apples  will  decay,  and  if  the  atmosphere  is 
dry,  they  will  shrivel.  Commercial  fruit  is  generally  placed 
in  rooms  that  are  cooled  artificially.  That  which  is  stored 
at  home  should  be  kept  in  frost-proof  buildings  or  dugouts. 
<5uestions: 

1.  How  has  apple-growing  been  made  possible  in  districts  not 
originally  adapted  to  it? 

2.  What  kind  of  soil  do  apple  trees  require? 

3.  How  are  different  soils  or  sods  prepared  for  apple  trees? 

4.  Tell  what  you  can  of  trees  suitable  for  setting. 

5.  How  and  when  should  trees  be  set? 

6.  What  cultivation  is  necessary? 

7.  What  mulching  and  pruning  are  necessary? 
Arithmetic: 

1.  If  trees  are  set  25  ft.  apart  each  way,  how  much  space  does 
each  tree  occupy?     How  many  trees  can  be  set  on  an  acre? 

2.  If  trees  are  set  25  ft.  apart  each  way  and  each  tree  produces 
4  bus.  of  apples,  how  many  bushels  will  be  produced  per  acre?  How 
much  are  they  worth  at  $1.00  per  bushel? 

3.  If  one  has  10  apple  trees,  each  producing  4  bus.  of  apples, 
Jtiow  much  will  the  apples  be  worth  at  90c.  per  bushel? 

J^xercises: 

1.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  different  kinds  of  fruit  you  have  eaten 
and  tell  where  each  came  from, 

2.  Who  raises  the  finest  strawberries  in  your  neighborhood? 
Visit  this  place  and  get  the  owner  to  tell  you  just  how  to  raise  straw- 
berries.    Then  write  a  story  about  what  you  have  learned. 

3.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  kinds  of  fruit  that  are  grown  in  your  neigh- 
borhood.    How  many  of  these  grow  wild? 

4.  Ask  your  mother  or  your  teacher  to  show  you  how  to  can  fruit. 
Then  write   a  story  telling  just  how  to  do  it. 

5.  Ask  some  fruit  grower  in  the  neighborhood  to  show  you  how 
to  prune  an  apple  tree. 

6.  Visit  some  orchard  in  the  fall  and  hunt  until  you  find  a  per- 
fect apple.  Find  out,  if  you  can,  why  some  of  the  apples  are  not  per- 
fect. Why  do  some  have  bad  spots  and  worm  holes?  What  could 
have  been  done  to  prevent  them? 

7.  Of  two  equally  sound  apples  place  one  in  a  cool  place  and  the 
other  in  a  warm  place  and  see  how  much  longer  one  will  remain  good 
than  the  other. 


CHAPTER  XI 
PLANT  DISEASES  AND  INSECT  PESTS 

PLANT  DISEASES 

Prevalence. — Plants  are  affected  by  diseases  just  as 
animals  are,  and  one  of  the  very  serious  problems  of  the 
farmer  is  to  learn  to  know  the  diseases  of  the  crops  he  grows, 
and  the  most  practical  means  of  combating  them.  Many 
volumes  have  been  written  about  plant  diseases,  and  there 
is  much  that  is  still  unknown  about  them.  Plant  diseases 
are  caused  by  parasitic  plants  that  grow  in  or  on  the  useful 
farm  crops  and  steal  their  living  from  them.  Only  a  few 
of  the  more  common  diseases  of  the  principal  farm  crops 
can  be  mentioned  in  a  book  of  this  kind. 

Loss. — An  immense  loss  is  sustained  every  year  from 
plant  diseases.  The  loss  on  every  farm  from  this  cause  is 
very  great,  much  greater,  we  believe,  than  most  farmers 
realize.  Every  year  there  is  some  loss  from  disease  in 
nearly  every  crop  grown,  but  as  a  rule  the  disease  is  not 
noticed  unless  it  is  quite  bad.  For  example,  one  can  very 
seldom,  if  ever,  find  a  field  of  wheat  entirely  free  from  rust; 
yet  the  rust  is  usually  unnoticed  until  a  season  occurs  which 
is  very  favorable  to  it,  and  a  great  loss  is  sustained.  Such 
a  season  occurred  in  Minnesota  in  1914,  and  wheat  rust 
caused  a  loss  of  at  least  30  per  cent  in  the  wheat  crop,  or  a 
money  loss  of  over  $15,000,000  in  one  state  in  one  year. 

Rust  affects  a  great  many  of  the  common  farm  crops, 
such  as  wheat,  oats,  barley,  alfalfa,  and  rye.  As  indicated 
above,  the  loss  is  often  enormous.  At  present  there  is  no 
known  remedy  except  to  select  varieties  of  crops  that  are 
capable  of  resisting  the  disease,  and  selecting  early-maturing 
varieties  that  are  likely  to  ripen  before  the  rust  becomes 
prevalent  enough  to  seriously  injure  the  crop.  Winter  grain 
crops,  because  they  ripen  earlier,  are  less  subject  to  rust 
than  spring-sown  crops. 

Grain  smuts  are  diseases  that  affect  barley,  oats  and 
wheat.     The  black  or  naked  heads  of  grain,  commonly  seen 


PLANT  DISEASES  AND  INSECT  PESTS 


157 


on  close  examination  of  a  field,  are  caused  by  smut.  There 
are  several  different  kinds  of  smut,  all  of  which  are  quite 
common.  All  the  smuts  may  be  controlled  by  proper 
treatment.  Some  of  them  are  easily  controlled,  while 
others  are  more  difficult  to  handle.  Every  farmer  or  farm 
boy  may  easily  know  the  different  smuts  and  the  best  means 
of  controlling  them.  It  is  very  common  for  smuts  to  cause 
a  loss  of  10  per  cent  in  a  grain  crop.  This  means  a  loss  of 
from  $1  to  $2  per  acre.  This  loss  may  be  prevented  at  a 
cost  of  only  a  few  cents  per  acre. 

Loose  smut  of  oats,  and  covered  smut  of  wheat  and 
barley  are  very  easily  controlled  by  treating  the  seed  grain. 

The  smut  spores,  or  seeds 
of  the  smut  plant,  live 
over  winter  on  the  kernels 
of  grain.  If  the  kernels 
of  grain  are  brought  in 
contact  with  a  solution 
of  formalin,  the  smut 
spores  are  killed.  Forty 
per  cent  formaldehyde 
may  be  purchased  at  any 
drug  store, — a  pint  bot- 


Figure  68. — Material  and  ^quipmenHor  treat-      \\q  ^JJ  COSt    frOm    thirty 
ing  certain  kinds  of  grain  smuts.  ...  .  ,      ,     *^ 

-  to  Sixty  cents^ — and  when 
mixed  with  45  gallons  of  water  will  make  enough  solution 
to  treat  60  or  80  bushels  of  seed  grain.  There  are  ma- 
chines on  the  market  for  treating  seed  grain  for  smut, 
or  the  grain  may  be  spread  on  the  floor  and  the 
solution  sprinkled  over  it  with  a  sprinkling  can.  The  grain 
must  be  shoveled  over  so  that  all  kernels  come  in  contact 
with  the  solution.  It  is  well  to  cover  the  grain  after  it  is 
treated  with  sacks  or  blankets  so  that  the  gas  from  the 
formalin  will  help  in  killing  the  smut  spores.  We  give  con- 
siderable space  to  these  smuts,  because  they  attack  very 
important  crops,  are  very  common,  almost  universal,  and 
are  so  very  easily  and  simply  treated. 

Loose  smut  of  wheat  and  barley  causes  the  whole  heads 
of  the  plants  to  fail  to  produce  seed,  and  instead  of  the  usual 
head  of  grain  there  is  nothing  left  but  the  bare  naked  stalk. 


158 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


A  careful  examination  of  a  field  of  wheat  or  barley  after  it 
is  well  headed  out  will  usually  show  a  considerable  number 
of  these  naked  heads.  The  spores  of  this  smut  are  found 
on  the  inside  of  the  kernels  of  grain,  and  on  this  account 
they  are  hard  to  destroy.  Formalin  has  no  affect  on  them. 
The  only  practical  treatment  is  what  is  called  the  hot  water 
treatment  and  this  is  very  hard  to  employ.  Another  method 
is  to  get  enough  clean  seed  to  plant  a  small  plot,  and  raise 
the  seed  grain  from  that.  Write  to  your  State  Experiment 
Station  for  full  information  about  smuts. 

Com  smut  may  attack  any  part 
of  the  corn  plant.  It  usually  ap- 
pears in  black,  soft  masses  on  the 
ears,  stalks  or  tassels.  Each  black 
ball  is  made  up  of  thousands  of 
spores.  These  spores  live  over  win- 
\^  /         ter  in  the  soil;  so  seed   treatment 

\y  i  f^         is  not  effective.     The  only  method 

of  control  is  to  pick  the  smut  balls 
from  the  corn  and  burn  them,  or 
rotation  of  crops,  or  both. 

Flax  wilt  is  a  disease  that  affects 
flax.  It  attacks  the  young  plants 
and  kills  them  so  they  wilt  and 
fall  over;  hence  the  name.  The 
spores  of  this  disease  live  over  winter 

Fi  ure  69— A  i       h    1  h    h    d    "^  ^^^  ^^^  ^^^  ^^    ^^^   ^^^^'      ^^   ^ 

^of  wheat;  B/l\eld*affected  controUed  by  sowing  flaxnooftener 
Sacked  b^Ursmut.^'"'^'^  ^^an  once  in  six  or  seven  years  on 
the  same  soil,  and  by  using  clean 
seed.  If  seed  from  an  infected  field  must  be  used,  it  may 
be  treated  with  formalin  the  same  as  oats  are  treated  for 
smut.  In  treating  flax  seed,  do  not  get  the  seeds  too  wet 
oi-  they  will  stick  together  and  be  difficult  to  sow. 

Apple  blight,  or  fire  blight,  is  a  disease  that  attacks  the 
limbs  or  trunks  of  apple  trees,  also  other  trees.  The  leaves 
on  the  affected  parts  look  as  if  they  had  been  scorched  by 
fire.  The  disease  also  shows  on  the  bark,  which  turns 
darker  in  color.  The  only  remedy  is  to  cut  out  the  parts 
affected  and  burn  them. 


PLANT  DISEASES  AND  INSECT  PESTS 


159 


Apple  scab  is  a  fungous  disease  which  attacks  the  blossoms 
and  other  parts  of  the  tree,  finally  manifesting  its  effect  on 
the  fruit,  which  becomes  scabby  and  shriveled  and  drops. 
Extensive  losses  are  suffered  in  this  way.  The  disease  is 
thought  to  be  more  prevalent  in  wet  seasons.  The  remedy 
is  to  spray  with  Bordoaux  mixture  once  before  blossoming. 


•^i 


m- 


Figure  70. — Spraying  fruit  trees. 

immediately  after  the  petals  fall  and  again  in  a  few  days. 

Formula  for  Bordeaux  Mixture 

Copper  sulphate  (blue  vitriol),  5  lbs. 

Quicklime  (not  slaked),  5  lbs. 

Water,  50  gallons. 

Dissolve  the  copper  sulphate  in  25  or  35  gallons  of  water.  Slake 
the  lime  in  the  remaining  part  of  the  water,  and  mix.  To  this  amount 
of  Bordeaux  mixture  3^  lb.  of  Paris  green  may  be  added  to  form  a 
general  insecticide  to  be  used  on  fruit-bearing  bushes  and  trees. 

Scab  and  scale  diseases  may  be  similarly  treated  with 
the  lime-sulphur  solution.     To   control   the   codhng-moth, 
there  should  be  a  midsummer  spraying  with  two  pounds  of 
arsenate  of  lead  to  fifty  gallons  of  water. 
Questions: 

1.  What  can  you  say  of  the  nature  of  plant  diseases? 

2.  Ijeam  to  write  down,  without  looking,  the  names  of  the 
diseases  discussed  in  this  lesson  and  the  plants  they  attack. 


160  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

3.     Describe  the  formalin  treatment  of  seed  grain,  and  name  the 
diseases  that  may  be  prevented  by  it. 
Arithmetic: 

1.  If  the  yield  of  grain  is  reduced  10%  by  smut,  how  much  does 
a.  farmer  lose  who  grows  100  acres  of  wheat  with  a  normal  yield  of  15 
bus.  per  acre?  How  many  dollars  does  he  lose,  if  wheat  is  worth  90c. 
per  bushel? 

2.  If  a  farmer  pays  50c.  for  a  pint  of  formaldehyde  and  uses  it 
and  four  hours  of  time  to  treat  60  bus.  of  wheat  for  smut,  how 
much  does  it  cost  him  per  bushel,  if  his  time  is  worth  15c.  per  hour? 

3.  How  many  acres  can  one  seed  at  the  rate  of  1}^  bus.  per 
acre,  with  60  bus.  of  wheat? 

DISEASES  OF  POTATO  AND  COTTON 

Potato  diseases  are  very  numerous  and  cause  more  loss 
to  the  crop  than  is  caused  to  most  other  crops  by  disease. 
Although  the  potato  crop  is  very  common,  and  the  diseases 
are  very  general,  comparatively  little  is  widely  known  or 
done  to  prevent  the  losses. 

Potato  scab  is  very  common.  It  attacks  the  tubers  and 
leaves  them  with  rough  unsightly  blotches.  This  scab 
greatly  reduces  the  value  of  the  crop,  though  it  does  not,  as 
a  rule,  materially  reduce  the  yield.  The  spores  of  the 
disease  live  over  both  on  the  tubers  and  in  the  soil.  The 
spores  on  the  tubers  are  destroyed  by  soaking  the  tubers 
for  one  and  a  half  hours  in  a  solution  of  formalin  made  by 
mixing  one  pint  of  40  per  cent  formaldehyde  in  35  gal- 
lons of  water.  The  seed  tubers  should  be  treated  before 
they  are  cut,  then  planted  on  clean  land,  that  is,  land  that 
has  not  produced  potatoes  for  four  or  five  years.  Four 
ounces  of  corrosive  sublimate  dissolved  in  hot  water,  then 
mixed  with  thirty  gallons  of  water,  is  also  effective  in  de- 
stroying scab.  The  tubers  are  soaked  in  it  13^2  hours. 
Corrosive  sublimate  is  very  poisonous  and  must  be  handled 
with  care. 

Rhizoctonia  is  another  serious  potato  disease,  which  in 
many  sections  seriously  affects  the  crop.  It  affects  the 
vines,  the  stems  and  the  tubers.  It  is  controlled  by  treat- 
ing the  seed  with  corrosive  sublimate,  as  indicated  above 
for  scab,  and  by  planting  clean  seed  on  clean  land. 

Potato  wilt,  or  brown  rot,  is  one  of  the  very  injurious 
potato  diseases,  though  it  has  never  been  recognized  as  a 
disease  by  a  great  many  potato  growers.     It  affects  both 


PLANT  DISEASES  AND  INSECT  PESTS  161 

the  vines  and  roots,  and  often  causes  serious  loss  in  the 
tubers  by  causing  them  to  rot.  A  thin  sUce  cut  across  the 
stem  end  of  tubers  affected  usually  shows  a  dark  ring  or 
diseased  portion  just  under  the  skin.  This  disease  causes 
a  great  loss  in  yield  and  from  tubers  rotting.  It  may  be 
entirely  controlled  by  selecting  clean  seed  and  by  rotation 
of  crops.  Clip  off  the  stem  ends  of  tubers  to  be  used  for 
seed,  and  discard  all  that  show  the  disease,  or  at  least  cut 
off  all  the  diseased  part.  Select  for  seed  only  disease-free 
tubers,  and  then  treat  with  corrosive  sublimate  solution  the 
same  as  for  scab.     Plant  only  clean  seed  on  clean  land. 

Potato  blight  causes  serious  losses  in  the  potato  crop 
nearly  every  year.  There  are  two  distinct  blights  that 
affect  potatoes.  They  are  called  early  and  late  blight. 
Both  diseases  affect  the  leaves  of  the  growing  plants,  and 
reduce  the  crop  of  tubers  by  partially  or  completely  destroy- 
ing the  leaves.  Late  blight  also  causes  the  tubers  to  rot; 
so  it  is  more  serious  than  early  bUght.  Both  of  these  blights 
are  controlled  by  spraying  the  vines  with  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture. See  page  149.  The  potato  vines  must  be  sprayed 
from  three  to  five  times.  Begin  spraying  when  the  plants 
are  six  to  eight  inches  high,  and  repeat  every  ten  to  fifteen 
days  until  the  potatoes  are  ripe. 

Cotton  Diseases. — There  are  two  serious  common  diseases 
of  the  cotton  plant :  wilt  and  root  rot.  Cotton  wilt  is  some- 
what similar  to  flax  wilt.  Some  plants  and  some  varieties 
of  cotton  seem  to  resist  the  disease  better  than  others. 
The  selection  of  resistant  varieties  and  the  rotation  of  crops 
are  the  most  effective  means  of  control.  Root  rot  affects 
cotton  quite  seriously  on  heavy  soils.  Deep  plowing,  drain- 
age and  rotation  of  crops  help  to  control  this  disease. 
Questions: 

1.  Name  some  important  diseases  that  affect  potatoes. 

2.  How  are  the  potato  blights  controlled? 

3.  Describe  the  making  of  Bordeaux  mixture? 

4.  Name  two  diseases  of  cotton  and  remedies  for  them. 
Arithmetic: 

1.  If  an  acre  of  potatoes  yields  160  bus.,  how  much  is  the  loss 
per  acre,  if  the  value  of  each  bushel  is  reduced  5c.  on  account  of  scab? 

2.  If  a  normal  yield  of  potatoes  is  160  bus.  and  the  yield  is  re- 
duced 25%  on  account  of  wilt,  what  is  the  loss  per  acre,  if  potatoes  are 
worth  40c.  per  bushel? 

11— 


162  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

3.  If  five  hours  of  time  are  required  to  select  and  treat  enough 
seed  potatoes  for  an  acre,  and  30c.  worth  of  material  is  required  for 
the  treatment,  what  will  the  total  cost  of  treatment  be,  if  one's  time 
is  worth  15c.  per  hour? 

INSECTS  AND  THEIR  CONTROL 

Loss  to  farm  crops  caused  by  insects  represents  a  very 
heavy  tax,  and  increases  greatly  the  cost  of  producing  crops. 
Many  injurious  insects,  in  fact  most  of  them,  are  always 
present,  and  there  seems  to  be  little  prospect  of  ever  getting 
rid  of  them.  The  problem  of  the  farmer  is  to  know  the 
habits  and  methods  of  control  of  the  insects  affecting  his 
crops,  and  to  wage  continuous  war  against  them. 

Habits. — Insects  have  certain  characteristics  that  dis- 
tinguish them  from  other  animals.  There  are  three  distinct 
sections  to  their  bodies:  head,  trunk  and  abdomen.  They 
also  ehange  in  character  as  they  develop.  There  are  four 
quite  distinct  changes:  first,  the  egg  stage;  second,  the 
larval  or  worm  stage, — this  is  the  stage  at  which  they  do 
most  of  the  damage  to  crops;  third,  the  pupal  or  resting 
stage,  during  which  time  the  insect  changes  to  the  fourth 
stage,  that  of  the  mature  insect. 

Two  Classes. — Insects  may  be  divided  into  two  classes 
by  their  methods  of  eating.  Some  insects  chew  their  food. 
These  insects  can  be  poisoned  by  spraying  poison  on  the 
plants  they  are  eating.  Other  insects  force  their  sharp 
mouth  parts  into  the  skin  or  bark  of  the  plant  and  suck  out 
the  juices.  Poison  sprayed  on  plants  will  not  affect  these 
insects,  because  they  do  not  get  it.  They  must  be  killed 
by  spraying  with  something  that  will  kill  them  simply  by 
coming  in  contact  with  their  bodies,  such  as  soap  solution 
or  tobacco  extracts.  Among  the  most  common  biting  insects 
that  can  be  poisoned  are  potato  bugs,  cutworms,  army  wonns, 
currant  worms,  cabbage  worms,  grasshoppers,  plum  curculio, 
and  codHng  moth.  The  most  common  suckmg  insects  are 
plant  lice,  squash  bugs,  chinch  bugs,  and  scale  insects. 

Remedies. — There  are  several  ways  of  combating  in- 
sects, the  most  generally  effective  way  being  good  farming; 
that  is,  the  rotation  of  crops,  fall  plowing,  clean  fence 
corners,  keeping  all  rubbish  picked  up  about  the  fields, 
and  maintaining  about  the  place  a  good  grove  or  other 


PLANT  DISEASES  AND  INSECT  PESTS  163 

suitable  place  for  birds.  Rotation  aids  in  reducing  the  loss 
from  insects,  because  it  provides  for  moving  each  crop  to 
a  different  field  every  year  or  two,  and  by  the  time  the 
insects  get  a  start  in  one  field  the  crop  they  are  attacking  is 
moved  to  another  field  and  largely  escapes.  Fall  plowing 
destroys  many  insects  by  destroying  their  winter  quarters, 
or  by  exposing  the  eggs  or  insects  so  that  the  weather  kills 
them.  Cleaning  up  fence  corners  and  rubbish  destroys 
good  hiding  places  and  winter  quarters  for  many  insects. 
Birds  eat  great  quantities  of  insects,  and  anything  done  to 
protect  or  shelter  them  aids  in  controlling  insects. 

Poisons  for  the  biting  insects  are  either  sprayed  or  dusted 
on  the  plants.  The  liquid  spray  is  most  common  and  gen- 
erally most  satisfactory.  Paris  green  mixed  in  water  in 
the  proportion  of  one  pound  of  Paris  green  to  fifty  gallons 
of  water  is  one  of  the  most  common  poisons.  Arsenate  of 
lead  mixed,  three  pounds  to  fifty  gallons  of  water,  is  also 
generally  used.  Bordeaux  mixture,  which  is  used  as  a  spray 
to  destroy  some  of  the  plant  diseases,  see  page  149,  may  be 
used  with  either  of  these  poisons  in  place  of  water.  So  one 
may  often  spray  for  insects,  like  potato  bugs,  and  plant 
diseases,  like  potato  blight,  at  one  operation. 

Contact  sprays  for  sucking  insects  may  be  made  at 
home  or  purchased.  A  very  simple  and  satisfactory  spray 
for  plant  lice  is  soap  solution,  made  by  dissolving  one  pound 
of  laundry  soap  in  fifteen  gallons  of  boiling  water.  This 
solution  may  be  used  any  time,  but  is  more  effective  when 
warm.  Tobacco  extracts  are  sold  commercially  by  druggists 
in  serveral  different  forms.  From  half  a  pint  to  a  pint  is 
used  in  fifty  gallons  of  water. 

The  cotton  boll  weevil  has  done  great  damage  to  the 
cotton  crop.  When  this  insect  first  appeared  it  was  feared 
it  would  completely  destroy  the  cotton  industry;  but  it 
has  become  less  destructive  since  cotton  growers  have 
learned  how  to  control  it.  Rotation  of  crops,  thorough 
cultivation  of  the  cotton  crop,  and  early  planting  of  early 
varieties  have  been  found  quite  effective  in  controlling  it. 
Questions: 

1.  Can  you  tell  some  of  the  characteristics  of  insects?  What  are 
the  four  stages  or  changes  that  insects  go  through? 


164  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

2.  Why  is  a  farmer  interested  in  knowing  whether  an  insect 
gets  its  food  by  biting  or  sucking? 

3.  What  can  you  say  of  the  cotton  boll  weevil? 
Arithmetic: 

1.  If  corn  on  fall-plowed  land  yields  50  bus.  per  acre  and  on 
spring  plowed  land  25%  less  on  account  of  the  damage  done  by  cut- 
worms, how  much  is  gained  per  acre  by  fall-plowing,  if  corn  is  worth 
50c.  per  bushel? 

2.  A  sprayed  his  cabbage  with  Paris  green  to  kill  cabbage  worms, 
and  raised  15  tons  of  cabbage  per  acre;  B  did  not  spray  his  cabbage 
and  raised  only  12  tons  per  acre.  How  much  did  A  make  by  spray- 
ing, if  cabbage  is  worth  3^c.  per  pound? 

Exercises: 

1.  Gather  some  specimens  of  wheat,  oats,  and  corn  that  are 
afflicted  with  smut.     What  has  the  disease  done  to  the  grain? 

2.  If  you  can  find  a  crop  that  is  afflicted  with  smut,  estimate 
the  loss.     Show  how  it  might  have  been  prevented  and  at  what  expense. 

3.  Make  a  comparative  study  of  apple  blight  and  potato  blight 
and  apple  scab  and  potato  scab.     How  are  they  alike  and  how  unlike? 

4.  Make  a  collection  of  a  few  insects  in  their  various  stages  of 
development. 

5.  Get  specimens  of  insects  that  eat  and  that  suck  and  parts 
of  plants  attacked.     Also  spray  against  each  kind  and  note  results. 

6.  Try  to  estimate  the  loss  that  insects  may  cause  to  crops  either 
on  your  own  farm  or  in  the  community. 


CHAPTER  XII 
LIVE  STOCK 

Importance. — Farmers  in  the  United  States  own  almost 
six  billion  dollars' worth  of  live  stock,  principally  as  follows: 
20,737,000  head  of  dairy  cattle,  worth  $1,118,487,000; 
35,855,000  head  of  beef  cattle  worth  $1,116,333,000;  20,- 
962,000  head  of  horses  worth  $2,291,638,000;  58,935,000 
head  of  hogs  worth  $612,951,000;  49,719,000  head  of  sheep 
worth  $200,803,000;  and  $202,506,372  worth  of  poultry. 

With  these  vast  sums  invested  in  live  stock  it  is  very 
important  that  the  boys  and  girls  who  are  to  handle  this 
vast  wealth  should  know  something  about  animals,  their 
habits  and  needs.  In  1909  the  total  value  of  live  stock 
sold  and  slaughtered  and  of  hve  stock  products  sold  from 
the  farmers  of  the  United  States  was  nearly  three  biUion 
dollars. 

Live  Stock  and  the  Soil. — Aside  from  the  vast  invest- 
ment in  live  stock  and  the  annual  value  of  live  stock  pro- 
ducts is  the  great  importance  of  live  stock  to  the  farm  and 
to  the  productivity  of  the  soil.  It  is  a  generally  recog- 
nized fact  that  farms  on  which  a  considerable  number  of 
live  stock  is  kept  produce  larger  yields  of  crops  than  farms 
without  live  stock.  This  result  is  true,  because,  when 
animals  eat  a  crop  of  grass  or  hay  or  corn,  a  large  part 
of  the  plant  food  contained  in  the  crop  is  returned  to  the 
farm;  while  on  farms  without  live  stock  the  whole  crop  is 
sold  from  the  farm  and  all  the  plant  food  it  contained, 
with  it.  It  is  well  worth  while  for  anyone  who  expects  to 
operate  a  farm  to  study  very  carefully  the  relation  of  live 
stock  to  the  farm. 

Classes  of  Stock. — There  are  several  different  ways  of 
classifying  live  stock.  First,  they  may  be  classified  accord- 
ing to  the  character  of  the  animals,  as,  Cattle,  Horses,  Mules, 
Sheep,  Swine,  and  Poultry.  Second,  they  may  be  classi- 
fied on  the  basis  of  the  uses  to  which  they  are  put,  thus: 


166  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Horses  and  Mules  are  used  chiefly  for  power  or  for  driv- 
ing and  riding.  In  some  countries  in  times  of  famine  horse 
meat  is  eaten,  but  such  cases  are  rare.  Horse  hides  or  skins 
are  used  to  make  gloves  and  shoes. 

Cattle  are  kept  chiefly  for  meat  and  milk.  Oxen  are 
sometimes  used  for  work  and  driving.  When  animals  are 
slaughtered,  their  skins  are  used  for  making  shoes,  gloves, 
harnesses  and  other  leather  goods.  Their  hair  is  used  for 
plastering.  The  bones  are  used  for  refining  sugar,  and  the 
bones,  blood,  hair  and  other  waste  is  used  for  fertilizer  or 
for  feed  for  hogs  and  poultry,  and  the  tallow  is  used  in 
oleomargarine,  for  making  soap  and  various  kinds  of  oils 
and  grease. 

Hogs  are  kept  for  the  production  of  meat  and  lard,  but 
the  waste  products  are  used  for  fertilizers. 

Sheep  are  kept  for  their  wool  from  which  clothing  is 
made  and  for  meat. 

Poultry  is  kept  for  meat  and  eggs. 

Questions: 

1.  Tell  what  you  can  about  the  importance  of  live  stock  in  the 
United  States.     In  your  community. 

2.  Why  do  live  stock  farms  usually  produce  larger  yields  of  grain 
and  com  than  farms  without  live  stock? 

3.  What  can  you  say  of  the  uses  of  the  different  kinds  of  live 
stock? 

Arithmetic: 

1.  Figm-e  as  nearly  as  you  can  the  value  of  all  of  the  live  stock 
on  your  home  farm,  or  on  some  other  farm  where  you  know  conditions. 

2.  Ten  bushels  of  com  contains  10  lbs.  of  nitrogen  1.7  lbs.  of 
phosphorus,  and  1.9  lbs.  of  potash.  If  10  bushels  of  com  will  produce 
100  lbs.  of  pork  which  contams  1.8  lbs.  of  nitrogen,  .3  lb.  of  phosphorus 
and  .1  lb.  of  potash,  what  is  the  value  of  the  fertility  saved  by  feeding 
the  10  bushels  of  corn  and  selling  the  100  lbs.  of  pork?  If  nitrogen  is 
worth  18  cents  per  lb.  and  phosphorus  and  potassium  are  worth  6 
cents  per  lb. 

CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT 

GENERAL 

Chores. — Farm  boys  are,  as  a  rule,  occupied  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  time,  mornings  and  evenings*,  car- 
ing for  the  stock.  As  the  profits  derived  from  the  live  stock 
depend  to  a  great  extent  on  the  care  they  receive,  it  is 
worth  while  to  spend  alittle  time  considering  how  the  ''chores" 
may  be  done  more  quickly,  more  easily  and  better. 


LIVE  STOCK 


16? 


The  amount  of  live  stock  kept  on  the  average  farm 
must  increase  as  more  intensive  systems  of  farming  be- 
come necessary.  The  proper  care  and  management  of  live 
stock  is  a  matter  of  increasing  importance. 

System. — System  in  doing  the  chores  is  fully  as  effec- 
tive as  system  in  studying.  A  carefully  thought  out  plan 
that  will  enable  one  to  get  a  certain  amount  of  work  done 
with  the  fewest  steps  and  least  possible  delay  will  often  change 


Figure  71. — ^A  well  arranged  bam  in  which  the  "chores"  may  be  done  in  a  mioi- 
mum  amount  of  time. 

a  tedious  and  unpleasant  chore  time  into  pleasant  paetiine. 
To  lead  four  or  six  horses  to  water,  and  then  clean  the  stable 
with  them  in  their  stalls,  requires  much  more  time  than  is 
necessary,  if  yards  and  watering  trough  are  so  arranged  that 
the  horses  can  be  turned  out  to  drink  by  themselves,  and 
the  stable  cleaned  while  they  are  out.  If  horses  are  turned 
out  to  drink  before  they  are  fed  their  grain,  as  they  should 
be,  they  will,  as  a  rule,  return  to  the  barn  promptly.  If 
you  are  not  caring  for  your  horses  in  this  manner,  do  so 
and  notice  the  saving  of  time;  or  if  you  are  doing  so,  notice 
the  time  it  takes  to  care  for  your  horses,  and  compare 
notes  with  some  neighbor  who  is  still  leading  his  horses  out 
to  water. 

Value  of  Time. — Many  men  who  work  in  factories  and 
at  other  occupations  are  paid  by  the  hour  on  the  basis 


168 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


of  the  amount  of  work  they  can  do,  and  every  minute 
of  their  time  must  be  made  to  count.  Such  rules  are  not 
possible  on  a  farm,  but  a  young  man  who  expects  to  farm 
can  and  should  make  himself  just  as  proficient  as  possible, 
not  with  the  idea  of  learning  to  do  twice  as  much  in  a  day 
as  an  ordinary  man  can  do,  but  to  so  direct  his  efforts  and 
utilize  his  time  as  to  be  able  to  do  a  good  day's  work  as  easily 


Figure  72. — Hereford  calves  out  for  exercise  in  a  protected  yard.     Stock  should 
be  left  out  in  winter  only  so  long  as  comfortable. 

and  in  as  short  a  time  as  is  consistent  with  good  work. 

Some  men  have  a  system  of  harnessing  and  hitching 
a  team,  and  can  do  these  things  better  and  in  much  less 
time  than  the  man  who  has  no  system  and,  consequently, 
does  them  in  a  different  way  each  time. 

Milking  ten  or  twelve  cows  twice  each  day  is  a  com- 
paratively easy  task  for  a  man  who  can  milk  them  in  an 
hour,  while  to  milk  the  same  cows  would  be  almost  drudgery 
to  the  man  who  can  milk  but  five  or  six  in  an  hour.  Men 
can  make  themselves  very  proficient  and  learn  to  do  things 


LIVE  STOCK  169 

rapidly  and  well  by  application  and  practice,  as  is  illustrated 
in  corn  husking.  Twenty-five  bushels  of  corn  is  a  fair 
day's  husking  for  a  beginner,  but  many  men  by  practice 
can  husk  from  sixty  to  over  one  hundred  bushels  in  a  day. 

Make  Animals  Comfortable. — One  of  the  first  essentials 
in  caring  for  animals  is  to  make  them  comfortable.  Hogs 
cannot  fatten,  hens  cannot  lay,  cows  cannot  give  a  good 
flow  of  milk  and  horses  cannot  continue  to  do  a  good  full 
day's  woi"k,  unless  they  are  made  comfortable.  Every 
time  an  animal  is  made  uncomfortable,  either  by  being 
left  hungry,  thirsty  or  cold,  by  lying  on  a  hard  bed  or  by 
being  dogged  or  pounded,  the  owner  losses  money  by  getting 
less  returns  from  the  animal. 

Exercise. — Exercise  is  of  the  same  value  to  animals  as 
to  men.  It  gives  firmness  and  strength  of  muscle,  pro- 
motes good  circulation  and  improves  the  tone  of  the  vital 
organs.  These  conditions  all  tend  to  increase  the  vigor  and 
productivity  of  live  stock. 

Outside  Feeding. — For  those  animals  that  are  fed  in 
winter  outside  the  stable  proper  feed  boxes,  forage  racks  and 
water  troughs  should  be  constructed.  The  first  two  should 
be  situated  so  that  feed  can  be  hauled  close  to  them,  and 
around  all  gravel  should  be  spread  or  a  plank  platform 
made.  Water  ought  not  to  be  allowed  to  freeze.  If  tanks 
are  used,  they  may  be  surrounded  with  a  framework  and 
covered  with  lids.  The  space  between  the  frame  and  the 
tank  may  be  filled  in  with  sawdust  or  manure.  Care  in 
these  particulars  is  well  worth  while. 
Questions: 

1.  Why  should  we  plan  to  save  time? 

2.  What  is  the  most  important  thing  in  caring  for  animals? 

3.  What  is  the  value  of  exercise  to  live  stock? 

4.  Describe  outside  arrangements  for  feeding- 
Arithmetic: 

1.  A  man  by  having  a  handy  barn  may  save  20  minutes  per  day 
in  doing  chores.  How  many  hours  may  he  save  in  a  year?  How  much 
is  this  time  worth  at  18c.   per  hour? 

2.  It  requires  A  60  minutes  to  milk  5  cows.  If  by  application 
and  practice  he  learns  to  milk  5  cows  in  40  minutes,  how  much  time  is 
saved  in  a  week?     In  a  year? 

3.  From  the  above,  at  20c.  an  hour  what  is  the  time  saved  in  one 
year  worth?    How  much  in  5  years? 


17% 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


SHELTER 

Shelter. — To  make  live  stock  comfortable  in  the  north- 
em  part  of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  good  shelter  must 
be  provided.  Expensive  shelter  is  not  necessary,  but  build- 
ings should  be  so  constructed  as  to  keep  the  animals  warm. 
If  they  are  not  kept  warm  by  shelter,  some  of  the  food  they 
eat  will  be  used  to  warm  them,  and  it  is  cheaper  to  provide 
good  shelter.  Besides,  if  animals  are  not  comfortable,  they 
cannot  do  well.  This  is  especially  true  of  milch  cows  and 
young  stock.  Steers  do  not  require  very  warm  quarters  to 
long  as  they  are  protected  from  the  storms  and  the  wind. 
Light. — Plenty  of  windows  should  be  provided,  so  that 

the  sunlight  can  reach 
just  as  much  of  the  inter- 
ior of  the  building  as  pos- 
sible. SunUght  is  a  deadly 
enemy  of  bacteria  and 
disease  germs.  There  is 
no  better  disinfectant  than 
sunlight,  and  it  is  so  cheap 
that  every  building  should 
be  amply  supplied.  Tub- 
erculosis is  very  common 
among  domestic  animals, 
and  it  is  generally  beUeved 
that  it  may  be  transmitted 
from  animals  to  man, 
especially  in  milk.  So 
it  is  not  alone  for  the  com- 
fort of  the  animals  and 
the  profit  we  derive,  that 
we  provide  healthful  quar- 
ters, but  to  guard  tlie 
health  of  the  family  as 
well. 
Ventilation. — By  good  ventilation  we  mean  such  a  system 
as  will  remove  the  foul  air  from  the  stable.  Leaving  a  door 
OT  a  window  open  is  not  good  ventilation,  as  it  causes  a 
draught  and  lets  out  the  warm  air.  A  better  way  is  to  have 
one  or  more  flues  built  in  the  barn,  that  will  carry  the  foul 


Figure  73. — A  good  system  of  ventilation 
for  a  barn.  Fresh  air  comes  in  near  the 
cseiling.  Foul  air  is  taken  out  from  near 
the  floor.     After  King. 


LITE  STOCK  171 

air  out.  Warm  air  is  lighter  than  cold  air,  hence  it  rises- 
A  stable  is  warmer  near  the  ceiling,  if  the  ceiling  is  tight, 
than  near  the  floor.  Hence  the  ventilator  flue  should 
open  near  the  floor  so  as  not  to  take  out  the  warm  air.  The 
carbon  dioxide  exhaled  by  animals  is  heavier  than  air,  hence 
it  settles  to  the  floor  and  will  be  taken  out  by  such  a  venti- 
lator. Air  should  be  let  into  the  stable  near  the  ceiling, 
whence  it  will  gradually  settle  and  become  partially  warmed 
before  it  reaches  the  animals.  The  illustration  in  Figure  73 
shows  how  a  ventilator  should  work.  Notice  the  bams  in 
the  neighborhood  and  make  a  note  of  the  number  of  windows 
and  ventilators.     How  is  your  bam  hghted  and  ventilated? 

Conveniences. — Since  chores  are  so  frequent,  just  a  few 
minutes  lost  each  time  they  are  done  amounts  to  many 
hours  in  a  year,  probably  several  days;  hence  it  is  well  to 
plan  to  have  the  barns  handy.  Feed,  both  hay  and  grain, 
should  be  stored  close  to  the  feeding  alleys,  which  should 
be  sufficiently  large.  Cleaning  the  stables  is  probably  the 
heaviest  part  of  the  chores,  and  should  be  made  as  easy 
as  possible.  If  stalls  are  so  arranged  that  a  team  can  be 
driven  through  the  bam  and  the  manure  loaded  in  a  spreader, 
wagon  or  sled,  and  hauled  directly  to  the  field,  it  will  be 
much  easier  than  where  it  is  necessary  to  throw  it  to  one 
end  or  side  of  the  barn,  then  throw  it  out  of  a  door  or  a 
window  and  pitch  it  into  a  wagon  outside.  This  last  method 
is  common  on  many  farms,  and  results  in  a  great  loss  of 
labor  and  time,  besides  a  loss  in  the  value  of  the  manure.  The 
sooner  manure  can  be  put  on  the  field  after  it  is  taken  from 
the  stable  the  better.  A  manure  pile  lying  under  the  eaves 
of  a  bam  for  a  few  months  may  lose  one  half  of  its  value. 
If  a  new  barn  is  being  built,  or  the  old  one  changed,  a  great 
deal  of  thought  and  study  should  be  put  on  it  to  make  it 
as  convenient  as  possible.  A  day  spent  in  planning  the 
alleys,  stalls,  etc.,  may  save  many  days'  work  each  year. 

Cost. — A  feature  that  must  not  be  overlooked  is  the 
cost  of  a  barn.  A  barn  is  built  to  shelter  stock,  and  stock 
is  kept  for  profit.  When  a  barn  is  built,  it  must  earn  for 
the  farmer  enough  each  year  to  pay  interest  on  the  invest- 
ment, cost  of  insurance,  taxes,  repairs  and  yearly  deprecia- 
tion.   If  a  barn  costs  $1,000  and  lasts  25  years,  the  yearly 


172  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

depreciation  is  $40.  Good  bams  are  desirable;  but  some- 
times barns  are  built  on  farms  where  live  stock  is  so  poorly 
managed  that  it  fails  to  bring  in  even  the  yearly  cost  of 
the  building;  and  in  such  cases  the  investment  results  in 
a  loss.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  yearly  cost  of  shelter 
is  not  so  high  as  to  take  all  profit  from  the  animals  kept. 
By  careful  attention  to  the  conditions  given  above,  one 
will  get  an  idea  of  how  to  solve  such  problems. 
Questions: 

1.  Why  should  buildings  be  warm?  Why  light?  Why  well 
ventilated? 

2.  Why  should  buildings  be  made  convenient? 

3.  Is  there  any  danger  of  investing  too  much  money  in  farm 
buildings? 

Arithmetic: 

1.  (a)  How  much  is  the  mterest  charge  per  year  on  $1,000  at 
4  per  cent? 

(b)  How  much  is  the  yearly  cost  of  insurance  on  the  barn  at 
50c.   per   $100? 

(c)  Such  a  barn  will  cost  about  $10  per  year  for  repairs.  What  is 
the  total  yearly  cost  of  the  bam? 

(Note:  It  is  the  sum  of  the  yearly  depreciation,  interest,  insur- 
ance   and    repair    charges.) 

2.  If  such  a  barn  will  shelter  20  head  of  stock,  what  will  be  the 
yearly    cost    per   head   for    shelter? 

3.  In  a  similar  manner  figure  the  yearly  cost  per  head  for  shelter 
in  a  $4,000  barn  that  will  shelter  40  head  of  stock.  (Note:  Find  de- 
preciation, interest,  insurance  and  repairs  at  same  rate  as  in  example 
No.  1.) 

Exercises: 

1.  Make  a  complete  list  of  all  live  stock  on  the  home  farm, 
showing  approximate  value  of  all  stock  and  of  each  kind,  also  numbers 
and  value  of  any  pure-bred  animals. 

2.  Make  a  list  of  the  different  uses  for  which  each  class  of  stock 
is  kept. 

3.  Visit  one  or  more  of  the  best  stock  farms  m  the  community 
and  make  a  report  in  writing  as  to  what  was  observed.  Some  of  the 
more  important  things  to  note  and  describe  are  kind  or  kinds  of  stock 
kept,  breed  or  breeds,  uses  for  which  they  are  kept,  kind  of  pastures 
provided,  kind  of  buildings,  whether  or  not  a  silo  is  used,  kinds  of  feed 
raised  for  both  summer  and  winter  use.  how  the  products  are  marketed, 
and  whether  or  not  the  boys  and  girls  of  the  farm  are  interested. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

Source. — We  have  learned  that  the  carbon  dioxide 
exhaled  by  animals  is  used  by  growing  plants;  that  this 
carbon  dioxide  in  the  air  unites  with  water  and  other  ele- 
ments taken  by  the  roots  of  the  plants  from  the  soil,  and 
forms  starch  and  other  compounds  of  which  plants  are  com- 
posed. The  heat  or  energy  given  off  by  the  sun  is  used  to 
build  up  these  compounds  in  the  plant.  Animals  are  de- 
pendent, then,  upon  plants  for  all  their  feed. 

Requirement. — The  act  of  living  involves  energy  and 
the  necessary  consumption  of  nourishment,  as  a  fuel,  to 
supply  the  vital  force.  As  the  heart  works  to  send  supplies 
to  the  various  parts  of  the  body,  it  must  itself  undergo  a 
constant  repair,  and  hence  it  has  its  own  blood  vessels. 
To  think  and  to  walk  are  at  the  expense  of  energy  created 
by  the  consumption  of  parts  of  the  body.  To  run  requires 
more  energy  and,  therefore,  causes  more  waste  than  to 
walk.  So,  then,  the  harder  animals  work  the  more  nourish- 
ment, or  feed,  they  must  have. 

How  Made  Available. — When  plants,  such  as  grass,  hay 
or  grain,  are  eaten  by  animals  and  digested,  the  compounds 
they  contain  are  broken  down  and  used  by  the  animal  body, 
and  the  energy  required  to  build  up  the  compounds  in  the 
plants  furnishes  energy  to  the  animal. 

Selection. — By  chemical  analysis  men  have  been  able 
to  determine  the  exact  constituent  elements  of  plants,  that 
is,  how  much  hydrogen,  oxygen,  nitrogen,  carbon,  phos- 
phorus, etc.,  has  entered  into  their  composition.  They 
know,  also,  the  proportion  of  these  elements  that  is  found 
in  animal  bodies.  With  these  facts  before  us,  therefore, 
it  is  easy  to  select  the  proper  feeds  for  each  kind  of  animal 
according  to  its  composition  and  pecuhar  physical  adapt- 
ability to  get  the  most  benefit  from  this  or  that  kind  of 
feed.  Different  kinds  of  animals,  and  animals  doing  dif- 
ferent classes  and  amounts  of  work,  require  different  kinds 


174  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

and  amounts  of  feed.  So  the  intelligent  feeding  of  animals 
requires  a  knowledge  of  the  composition  of  different  feeds 
and  of  the  requirements  of  the  various  classes  of  animals 
doing  different  kinds  and  amounts  of  work. 

Kinds. — Feeds  are  of  two  general  classes,  roughage  and 
concentrates.  Roughage  includes  all  bulky  feeds  as  hay, 
fodder,  straw  and  silage.  Concentrates  include  all  the  grains 
and  mill  feeds,  such  as  oats,  bran,  corn  and  oil  meal. 

Composition. — Feeds  are  generally  divided,  according 
to  the  elements  they  contain,  into  the  following  classes: 

Protein  is  a  term  applied  to  a  group  of  compounds  con- 
taining nitrogen.  Protein  is  used  by  animals  to  make 
muscle  or  lean  flesh,  bone,  hair  or  wool,  tendons,  nerves, 
casein  and  albumin  in  milk,  etc.  No  other  compound  can 
take  the  place  of  protein;  consequently  it  is  very  important 
that  enough  be  fed,  or  the  animal  cannot  keep  up  in  flesh 
and  production  or  work.  If  too  much  protein  is  fed,  it 
can  replace  the  other  elements;  but  as  these  feeds  are  usually 
expensive,  it  is  not  wise  to  feed  more  than  is  needed. 

Feeds  containing  a  large  proportion  of  protein,  as  bran, 
oil  meal,  clover,  etc.,  are  called  nitrogenous  feeds. 

Carbohydrates  are  those  substances  in  feed  that  are  com- 
posed of  carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  but  have  no  nitro- 
gen. Sugar,  starch,  fibre,  etc.,  are  carbohydrates.  They 
are  used  in  the  body  to  produce  fat,  or  are  burned  in  the 
body  to  produce  heat  or  energy.  They  cannot  be  used  in 
place  of  protein. 

Fat. — The  oils,  wax  and  fats  contained  in  feeds  are 
called  fat.  It  is  used  in  the  animal  body  for  the  same  pur- 
pose as  carbohydrates.  One  pound  of  fat  is  worth  as  much 
as  2.2  pounds  of  carbohydrates. 

Feeds  containing  a  large  proportion  of  carbohydrates 
and  fat,  as  timothy  or  wild  hay,  corn,  barley,  etc.,  are  called 
non-nitrogenous  feeds. 

Ash. — Plants  contain  some  mineral  matter,  a  small 
amount  of  which  is  necessary  in  animal  bodies,  as  iron  in 
the  blood  and  calcium  in  the  bones. 

All  the  common  feeds  contain  protein,  carbohydrates, 
fat  and  ash,  and  hence  might  be  classed  in  different  groups. 
Those  containing  a  proportionately  large  amount  of  protein 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING  1'*^ 

are  called  nitrogenous,  and  those  containing  proportionately 
large  amounts  of  carbohydrates  and  fat,  non-nitrogenous. 
Sometimes  feeds  are  classed  as  grains  or  concentrates  and 
roughage.  The  following  table  shows  the  composition  or 
digestible  nutrients  of  common  feeds: 

Digestible  Nutrients  in  One  Pound  of  Feed 

(1)  Nitrogenous  Grain  Feeds. 

Protein  C.  H.  Fat 

Oata 097  .521  .038 

Shorts,  wheat 110  .525  .034 

Bran,  wheat 125  .416  .030 

Oil  meal,  old  process 302  .326  .067 

(2)  Non-Nitrogenous  Grain  Feeds: 

Protein  C.  H  Fat 

Com,  dent 075  .678  .046 

Barley 090  .668  .016 

Emraer  (Speltz>s 095  .632  .017 

Rye 099  .684  .012 

(3)  Nitrogenous  Roughage. 

Protein  C.  H.  Fat 

Alfalfa 106  .390  .009 

Red  clover .076  .393  .018 

Mangels 008  .064  .001 

(4)  Non-Nitrogenous  Roughage. 

Protein  C.  H.  Fat 

Com  silage,  mature Oil  .150  .007 

Com  stover,  medium  dry 021  .424  .007 

Com  fodder,  medium  dry 030  .473  .015 

Swamp  grass 035  .401  .008 

Timothy  hay .030  .428  .012 

Prairie  hay 040  .414  .011 

Oat  straw .010  .426  .009 

Balanced  Ration. — Very  few  plants  contain,  in  the 
right  proportion,  the  elements  required  by  animals;  so  a 
combination  of  two  or  more  kinds  of  feed  is  found  necessary 
to  supply  the  animal  with  needed  feed.  When  one  gives 
just  the  right  kinds  and  amounts  of  feed  to  supply  the 
needs  of  the  animal,  he  is  feeding  a  balanced  ration.  Such 
a  ration  is  most  satisfactory  and  economical,  because  it 
supplies  all  the  elements  needed,  with  no  surplus  of  any 
one.  All  animals  require  feed  that  contains  in  the  proper 
proportion,  protein,  carbohydrates,  fat  and  ash. 

Balanced  rations  will  be  given  for  each  class  of  animals 
as  it  is  discussed. 


176  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Feeds  Compared. — In  comparing  the  grain  feeds  or 
concentrates  with  the  roughage,  one  will  see  that  a  pound 
of  grain  usually  contains  more  nutrients  than  a  pound  of 
roughage.  As  a  rule  there  is  much  unsalable  roughage  on 
the  farm,  while  grain  is  salable;  hence  there  is  a  tendency  to 
feed  more  roughage  and  less  grain.  A  reasonable  amount 
of  roughage  is  desirable,  but  an  animal  that  is  working  can- 
not eat  and  digest  enough  of  it  to  supply  its  needs.  It 
should  have  some  grain.  To  feed  only  grain  is  not  de- 
sirable, as  it  is  expensive  and  does  not  supply  enough  bulk. 
A  proper  balance  must  be  maintained. 
Questions: 

1.  What  is  a  "balanced  ration"? 

2.  What  is  protein,  and  for  what  is  it  used  in  the  animal  body? 

3.  What  are  carbohydrates,  and  for  what  are  they  used  in  the 
animal  body? 

4.  What  substances  are  known  as  fat,  and  for  what  are  they 
used  in  the  animal  body? 

5.  What  classes  of  feeds  are  called  nitrogenous  feeds?  What 
classes  are  non-nitrogenous? 

6.  Why  do  animals   need  food? 
Arithmetic: 

1.  Bran,  oil  meal,  and  clover  are  feeds  rich  in  protein.  How- 
much  is  each  worth  per  pound  when  oil  meal  is  worth  $35.00  per  ton, 
bran  $24.00  per  ton,  and  clover  hay  $5.00  per  ton? 

2.  Corn,  barley  and  timothy  hay  are  feeds  rich  in  carbohydrates. 
How  much  is  each  worth  per  pound  when  corn  is  worth  54c.  per  bushel 
(56  lbs.),  barley  56c.  per  bushel  (48  lbs.),  and  timothy  hay  $5.00  per  ton? 

3.  There  is  7.1%  of  protein  in  clover  hay.  How  many  pounds  of 
protein  in  one  ton?  How  much  does  the  protein  cost  per  pound,  if 
clover  hay  is  worth  $5.00  per  ton? 

Exercises: 

1.  Report  in  writing  the  number  of  acres  of  pasture  provided  on 
some  farm  for  each  head  of  horses,  colts,  cows,  young  cattle,  hogs, 
sheep. 

2.  Find  out  how  many  pounds  of  hay,  corn,  fodder,  silage  and 
grain  feed  is  required  for  one  animal  during  the  winter  season,  also  for 
one  day  for  each  of  the  kinds  of  animals  mentioned  above. 

3.  Report  the  number  of  farms  in  the  community  that  raise 
alfalfa  hay  for  feed  and  that  have  silos  and  use  silage. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

HORSES 

TYPES  AND  BREEDS 

Breeds. — There   are   many   different   breeds   of   horses, 

just  as  there  are  many  breeds  of  cattle.     People  in  different 

countries  or  communities  have  wanted  horses  for  different 

purposes,  and  have  kept  them  under  different  conditions 


Figure  74. — A  Percheron  stallion,  a  draft  type. 

until  they  have  developed  distinct  breeds.    We  are  told 
that  our  many  different  breeds  of  horses  have  all  been 


178 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


developed  from  the  prehistoric  horse,   skeletons   of  which 
have  been  found  in  different  parts  of  the  world. 

Types  of  Horses. — There  are  four  general  types  of  horses, 
ponies,   light  horses,   coach  horses,   and   draft   horses.     In 


Figure  75. — A  Clydesdale  stallion,  a  draft  type. 

each  class  there  are  a  number  of  breeds.     By  far  the  most 
important  type  is  the  draft  horse. 

Draft  horses  are  heavy,  slow-moving  animals,  used  to 
do  most  of  the  heavy  work  in  the  world,  such  as  plowing, 
grading  and  hauling.  The  draft  horse  has  a  broad  back, 
broad  chest,  deep  body,  relatively  short  legs,  big  feet  and 
has  great  strength,  but  cannot  travel  fast.  Draft  horses 
are  expected  to  weigh  from  1,500  pounds  to  over  2,000 
pounds.     Percheron  horses  originated  in  France,  but  are 


HORSES 


179 


the  most  common  and  most  popular  draft  breed  in  this 
country.  They  are  black  or  gray  in  color  and  normally 
weigh  from  1,800  to  2,300  pounds.  French  draft  horses 
are  quite  similar  to  Percheron.  Clydesdale  horses  origin- 
ated in  Scotland,  but  are  very  common  in  this  country. 
They  are  about  the  same  weight  as  the  Percherons.  They 
ar.e  usually  light  bay  in  color  and  have  one  or  more  white 
feet  and  a  white  stripe  or  star  in  the  face.     They  have  long 


Figure  76. — A  Belgian  stallion,  a  draft  type. 

and  shaggy  hair  on  their  legs.  They  may  be  brown,  black, 
gray  or  chestnut.  Shire  horses  originated  in  England. 
They  are  about  the  same  in  size  as  the  Clydesdale  and  Perch- 
eron, possibly  a  little  heavier  and  coarser.  They  are  colored 
like  the  Clydesdale  and  have  long  hair  on  their  legs,  but 
they  are  more  like  the  Percheron  in  form.  They  are  not  so 
common  in  this  country  as  the  Percherons  and  Clydesdales, 


180  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Belgian  horses  originated  in  Belgium.  They  are  probably 
a  little  lighter  in  weight  than  the  other  draft  breeds  men- 
tioned, and  are  a  little  more  blocky  in  form,  and  have 
shorter  legs.  They  may  be  bay,  brown  or  roan  in  color. 
They  have  no  long  hair  on  their  legs.  This  breed  is  not 
common  in  America.  The  Suffolk  is  another  English 
breed  not  common  in  America,  but  well  worthy  of  con- 
sideration. They  are  not  quite  so  heavy  as  Percherons, 
are  chestnut  in  color,  and  have  no  long  hair  on  theii*  legs. 


Figure  77. — A  good  type  of  light  driving  horse. 

Light  horses,  as  indicated  by  the  name,  are  light  in 
weight,  weighing  from  800  lbs.  to  1,200  lbs.,  or  sometimes 
as  much  as  1,300  lbs.  They  are  used  for  driving,  riding 
and  racing.  These  horses  are  distinguishable  by  their  light 
bodies,  longer,  finer  legs,  and  more  graceful,  easier  action 
than  is  seen  in  the  draft  horses.  Several  more  or  less  dis- 
tinct breeds  are  found  in  this  class.  The  Thoroughbred  was 
developed  in  England  and  is  used  for  running  and  hunting. 
The  Arabian  is  a  beautiful  horse  originated  in  Arabia,  and 
used  for  riding.  The  Orloff  Trotter  originated  in  Russia 
and  is  used  for  driving  and  racing.  There  are  also  three 
American  breeds  in  this  class,  American  Saddler,  Standard- 
bred  and  Morgan,  used  for  driving  and  racing. 


HORSES  181 

Coach  horses  include  several  breeds  of  horses  used  for 
hauling  heavy  carriages  or  coaches  and,  sometimes,  for 
light  hauling.  They  are  lighter  and  have  much  better 
action  than  draft  horses  and  are  heavier  and  slower  than 
the  breeds  mentioned  under  light  horses.  The  breeds 
in  this  class  range  in  weight  from  1,000  lbs.  to  1,500  lbs. 
Hackneys  and  Cleveland  Bays  are  English  breeds.  Hack- 
neys are  used  extensively  as  fancy  carriage  horses.  Cleve- 
land Bays  are  used  for  heavy  coaches  and  for  light  hauling. 
French  Coach  horses,  originated  in  France,  and  German 
Coach  horses,  developed  in  Germany,  are  other  important 
breeds  coming  under  this  class. 

Ponies  include  several  breeds  of  small  horses  used  for 
driving  and  riding,  chiefly  by  children.     This  class  includes 
Shetland  ponies,  Indian  and  Mexican  ponies,  etc. 
Questions: 

1.  What  is  the  most  common  breed  of  horses  in  your  community? 

2.  Describe  fully  the  breed  of  horses  you  like  best. 

3.  Name  and  describe  all  the  common  breeds  of  draft  horses. 
Arithmetic: 

1.  A  is  plowing  with  two  horses,  weighing  1,000  lbs.  each.  B  is 
plowing  with  five  horses,  weighing  1,500  lbs.  each.  What  is  the  weight 
of   each   man's   team? 

2.  If  a  man  with  two  1,000-lb.  horses  can  plow  4  inches  deep  with 
one  14-inch  plow,  how  deep  can  B,  in  Example  1,  plow  with  two  14-inch 
plows  (a  gang  plow),  assuming  that  the  depth  B  can  plow  will  be  in 
proportion  to  the  weight  of  his  team. 

3.  If  A  and  B  (see  example  1)  each  feeds  his  team  at  the  rate 
oi  l}i  lbs.  of  oats  per  day,  per  100  lbs.  live  weight,  how  much  would 
e&ch  have  to  pay  for  oats  at  40c  per  bushel? 

CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT 

In  the  Stable. — While  in  the  stable  the  horse  should  have 
plenty  of  good  bedding  to  keep  him  comfortable  and  clean 
whenever  he  wishes  to  lie  down.  Good  ventilation  is 
very  necessary,  also,  as  he  requires  about  one  cubic  foot  of 
fresh  air  every  hour  for  each  pound  of  his  weight.  Th^ 
feed  box  should  be  broad  and  flat-bottomed,  and  kept  clean. 
He  should  be  well  tied  so  as  to  permit  his  head  to  rest  on  the 
floor  and  yet  the  strap  should  not  be  so  long  that  he  can 
put  his  foot  over  it. 

Grooming. — Horses  should  be  thoroughly  curried  and 
brushed  eveiy  day  for  the  sake  of  both  health  and  appear- 


182  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

ance.  Washing  may  be  desirable  at  times,  but  is  likely  to 
spoil  the  lustre  of  the  hair  and  may  cause  chill  unless  prompt- 
ly dried.  The  best  time  to  groom  the  horses  is  in  the  even- 
ing after  the  work  is  done. 

Shoeing. — Horses  at  work  need  to  be  shod  to  prevent 
the  hoof  from  wearing  away  and  becoming  sore  and,  in 
winter,  to  prevent  their  slipping.  Careful  attention  to 
shoeing  adds  much  to  the  comfort  and  safety  of  a  horse  as 
well  as  to  the  convenience  of  the  owner. 

The  cost  of  horse  labor  has  been  determined  by  the 
Minnesota  Experiment  Station,  in  co-operation  with  the 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  by  keeping  accurate 
records  on  twenty-four  Minnesota  farms  for  six  years. 
These  records  show  that  the  total  cost  of  keeping  a  farm 
work-horse  for  a  year  averages  about  $84.00,  and  that  the 
average  number  of  hours  of  work  done  by  each  horse  is  about 
1,000  per  year,  making  the  cost  per  hour  of  work  8.4  cents. 

To  one  who  has  given  the  matter  little  thought,  the 
above  figures  seem  high,  but,  when  one  considers  that  the 
cost  of  a  horse  for  a  year  includes  several  items,  it  becomes 
plain  that  the  figures  are  not  far  wrong.  The  following 
items  are  the  important  ones  in  the  cost  of  keeping  a  horse: 
feed,  labor  for  caring  for  him,  depreciation,  interest  on  in- 
vestment, shelter,  shoeing,  and  depreciation  and  repair  of 
harnesses.  While  it  is  not  easy  to  figure  all  these  items 
without  having  kept  accurate  records  for  a  considerable 
time,  yet  a  fairly  accurate  estimate  may  be  made  by  noting 
about  the  amount  of  hay  and  grain  fed  per  day  in  winter 
and  in  summer,  and  its  value,  the  amount  of  time  spent  each 
day  in  caring  for  the  horses,  the  value  of  the  horses  and  on 
this  value  figuring  the  interest  and  depreciation,  and  then 
adding  to  these  items  a  fairly  liberal  estimate  of  the  cost 
of  shelter,  harnesses  and  shoeing.  The  total  amount  will 
no  doubt  be  a  surprise. 

The  cost  of  horse  labor  on  the  farm  may  be  reduced 
by  raising  more  horses  on  the  farm,  by  keeping  fewer  work 
horses,  by  economical  feeding  and  by  better  planning  of 
the   work. 

Raising  More  Horses. — By  raising  more  horses  on  the 
farm,  most  of  the  farm  work  may  be  done  with  mares  that 


H0R8E8  183 

raise  colts,  and  with  young  horses  before  they  are  old  enough 
to  sell  to  advantage.  In  this  way  the  horses  will  be  doing 
double  duty.  The  item  of  depreciation  will  be  largely  elim- 
inated; also  a  part  of  the  cost  of  feed,  because  at  least  a  por- 
tion of  the  feed  fed  to  the  mares  will  be  paid  for  out  of  ihe 
value  of  the  colts. 

Fewer  horses  can  often  be  kept,  with  little  inconven- 
ience in  doing  the  farm  work.  When  one  realizes  that  it 
costs  $70  to  $90  per  year  to  keep  a  horse,  he  may  find  that 
often  an  extra  horse  may  be  hired  for  a  few  days,  during 
seeding  or  harvest,  cheaper  than  to  keep  one  a  whole  year 
when  it  is  really  needed  but  a  very  short  time. 

Distribution  of  Horse  Labor. — One  can  often  greatly 
reduce  the  demand  for  horse  labor  at  special  seasons,  and 
distribute  it  over  a  longer  season,  by  following  a  diversified 
system  of  farming.  If  a  part  of  the  farm  is  seeded  to  grass, 
there  is  less  plowing  and  seedmg  to  be  done.  If  corn  is  raised 
on  a  part  of  the  land,  instead  of  seeding  it  all  to  grain,  the 
seeding  and  harvesting  periods  are  made  longer;  so  the 
same  land  can  be  handled  with  less  horse  labor. 

Have  Plenty  of  Horses. — It  is  important,  however,  to 
have  plenty  of  good,  strong  horses  with  which  to  do  the 
farm  work,  because  with  good  horses  one  can  do  more 
work  in  a  day  than  with  poor  ones  and  thus  save  man 
labor,  which  is  also  costly.  It  is  easier  to  keep  good  hired 
men,  if  one  has  good  horses.  The  good  farm  manager  will 
consider  the  question  from  both  sides  and  act  accordingly, 
but  he  cannot  act  wisely  unless  he  knows  all  the  facts. 
Questions: 

1.  Name  some  of  the  items  that  must  be  considered  in  determin- 
ing the  cost  of  keeping  a  farm  work  horse. 

2.  Give  four  ways  by  which  the  cost  of  horse  labor  may  be  reduced 
on  the  farm. 

3.  Give  at  least  two  reasons  why  plenty  of  good  horses  should 
be  kept  on  the  farm. 

4.  Why  should  horses  be  well  bedded?    Groomed?      Shod? 
Arithmetic: 

1.  If  a  horse  is  fed  2  qts.  of  oats  three  times  a  day  half  the  year 
and  4  qts.,  three  times  per  day  for  the  remainder  of  the  year,  how  many 
bushels  of  oats  will  he  be  fed  in  a  year?  How  much  are  they  worth  at 
35c.  per  bushel? 

2.  If  a  horse  is  fed  15  lbs.  of  hay  per  day,  how  many  tons  will 
he  be  fed  in  a  year?    How  much  is  it  worth  at  $6.00  per  ton? 


184 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


3.  If  a  man  spends  1  hour  per  day  caring  for  horses,  how  much 
time  will  he  spend  in  a  year?  How  much  time  is  this  per  horse?  How 
much  is  this  labor  worth  at  14c.  per  hour? 

FEEDING 

Feed  is  the  greatest  general  expense  in  keeping  a  horse. 
This  fact  and  the  fact  that  there  are  many  different  ways  of 
feeding  and  kinds  of  feed  make  it  evident  that  in  the  feediiig 
of  horses  is  a  great  opportunity  for  waste  or  saving.  The 
average  cost  of  feed  (hay  or  grain)  for  a  farm  work  horse 
has  been  found  by  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station  to 
be  about  $50.00  per  year.  If  one  is  keeping  several  horses, 
there  is  an  expenditure  sufficiently  large  to  be  worthy  of 
consideration. 

Concentrated   Food. — A    horse    has    but    one    stomach 

and  that  is  not 
nearly  so  large  as 
the  stomach  of  a 
cow.  On  this  ac- 
count a  horse  can 
not  eat  as  much 
roughage  (hay  and 
fodder)  as  a  cow, 
and  must  have  a 
larger  proportion  of 
concentrated  feed, 
as  corn,  oats,  etc., 
and  horses  have 
less  time  in  which 
to  eat  than  cattle. 
A  horse  at  work  is 
busy  for  about  ten  hours  each  day,  and  has  only  the  night 
in  which  to  eat  less  concentrated  feeds.  Four  pounds  of 
oats,  which  is  a  fairly  good  feed  for  a  horse,  contains  .42 
lbs.  of  protein,  2.0  lbs.  of  carbohydrates  and  .15  lbs.  of  fat. 
Four  pounds  of  timothy  hay  contains  .11  lbs.  of  protein, 
1.72  lbs.  of  carbohydrates  and  .06  lbs.  of  fat.  A  horse  can 
eat  4  lbs.  of  oats  in  ten  to  twenty  minutes,  while  it  would 
take  him  about  an  hour  to  eat  four  pounds  of  hay. 

At  noon  a  work  horse  seldom  has  a  chance  to  eat  as 
much  as  he  wants;  but,  if  he  has  a  good  feed  of  grain,  he 


Figure  78. — Horses  at  work. 


HORSES  185 

can  come  more  nearly  getting  what  he  needs  than  if  he  is 
fed  only  hay. 

More  Grain  Than  Roughage. — For  the  reasons  given 
above,  a  good  ration  for  a  horse  at  heavy  work  must  con- 
tain more  grain  than  roughage  by  weight;  while  a  good 
ration  for  a  milch  cow  will  contain  fully  twice  as  much  rough- 
age as  grain. 

Roughage  is  a  much  cheaper  form  of  feed  than  grain. 
For  example,  oats  at  32c.  per  bushel  cost  Ic.  per  pound; 
while  hay  at  $5.00  per  ton  costs  but  Ic.  for  four  pounds. 

Since  a  horse  at  work  must  have  a  large  proportion  of 
grain,  it  is  very  important  that  one  try  to  feed  as  cheap  a 
grain  as  possible  to  get  the  desired  results. 

Oats  and  Com. — The  favorite  feed  for  horses  is  oats 
and  timothy  hay.  The  average  cost  of  oats  per  pound  is 
over  Ic,  while  the  average  cost  of  shelled  com  is  about 
%c.  per  pound.  The  grain  feed  alone  for  a  horse  costs 
about  $50.00  per  year.  If  corn  can  be  used  to  replace  all, 
or  a  part  of,  the  oats,  a  considerable  saving  can  be  made. 

We  have  learned  that  there  are  two  general  classes  of 
feed:  nitrogenous  or  muscle-forming  feeds,  and  non-nitro- 
genous or  fat  and  heat-forming  feeds.  Most  of  the  common 
farm  feeds  have  both  nitrogenous  matter  (protein)  and 
non-nitrogenous  matter  (carbohydrates),  but  the  proportion 
of  these  compounds  varies. 

The  most  common  feeds  that  have  a  comparatively 
large  amount  of  protein,  are  bran,  oats,  clover  and  alfalfa 
hay.  The  feeds  containing  large  quantities  of  carbohy- 
drates are  corn,  barley,  timothy  or  wild  hay,  and  corn 
fodder.  In  the  grain  feeds,  those  containing  a  large  pro- 
portion of  protein  are  more  expensive  than  those  rich  in 
carbohydrates;  while  in  the  roughage,  clover  hay,  which  is 
rich  in  protein,  is  cheaper  than  timothy,  which  is  very  poor 
in  protein.  These  facts  make  it  evident  that  the  needed 
protein  may  be  furnished  in  roughage  cheaper  than  in  grain. 

Com  and  Clover  Hay. — If  corn  is  to  replace  oats  as  the 
grain  feed  for  horses,  some  feed  rich  in  protein  must  be  used 
for  roughage.  Clover  is  the  cheapest  form  of  roughage  that 
can  be  produced  on  the  farm,  and  is  rich  in  protein.  There 
is  a  general  belief  among  horsemen  that  clover  hay  is  not 


186 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


good  for  horses.  Poor  and  dusty  clover  hay  may  not  be; 
but  good,  bright,  well  cured  clover  hay,  fed  in  moderation, 
is  a  very  good  kind  of  hay  for  horses. 


Figure  79. 


-Making  clover  hay.     Clover  should  be  grown  and  fed  on  every  farm. 
It  is  a  very  cheap  nitrogenous  feed. 


Actual  experiments  at  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station 
have  shown  that  horses  fed  mixed  timothy  and  clover  hay, 
kept  just  as  well,  were  able  to  do  just  as  much  work  and 
showed  just  as  good  spirit,  when  fed  corn  as  when  fed  oats, 
and  that  a  pound  of  corn  on  the  cob  was  worth  as  much  for 
horse  feed  as  a  pound  of  oats.  If  horses  can  be  fed  corn 
and  clover  hay  without  detriment  to  them,  the  cost  of 
keeping  a  work  horse  can  be  reduced  $10.00  to  $20.00 
per  year.  These  data  are  worthy  of  study  and  a  fair  trial. 
Questions: 

1.  Can  you  give  any  way  by  which  the  cost  of  feed  for  a  horse 
may  be  reduced  without  injury  to  the  horse? 

2.  What  can  you  say  of  the  relative  value  of  corn  and  oats  as 
feed  for  horses,  and  the  cost  per  pound  of  each? 

3.  Compare  timothy  and  clover  hay  as  to  their  feeding  value. 
Arithmetic: 

1.  If  com  is  worth  54c.  per  bushel,  what  is  the  cost  per  ton  of 
shelled  com  (56  lbs.  per  bushel)?    Of  ear  corn  (72  lbs.  per  bushel)? 

2.  If  it  costs  $16.20  per  acre  to  grow  a  crop  of  corn  and  husk  it 


HORSES  187 

from  the  standing  stalks,  what  does  it  cost  to  produce  a  bushel  of  com 
when  it  yields  40  bushels  per  acre?  How  much  does  such  corn  cost 
per  ton  of  shelled  com?     Per  ton  of  ear  comi? 

3.  If  it  costs  $9.50  per  acre  to  produce  a  crop  of  2  tons  of  clover, 
how  much  does  it  cost  per  ton  to  produce  clover  hay? 

FEEDINQ  HORSES  AT  HEAVY  LABOR 

Requirements  of  a  Horse. — A  balanced  ration  for  a 
horse  at  hard  work  must  contain  digestible  nutrients  in 
approximately  the  following  amounts:  .18  lbs.  of  protein, 
1.2  lbs.  of  carbohydrates,  and  .05  lbs.  of  fat,  per  100  lbs. 
live  weight  of  horse.  Thus  a  horse  weighing  1,000  lbs. 
requires,  when  at  hard  labor,  1.80  lbs.  of  protein,  12.0 
lbs.  of  carbohydrates  and  .5  lbs.  of  fat. 

Combination  of  Feeds. — The  proper  combination  of 
the  feeds  requires  some  thought  and  some  figuring,  but 
is  a  work  that  should  be  done  on  every  farm  or  anywhere 
that  horses  are  fed  grain.  Only  by  studying  the  feeding 
value  of  the  different  feeds,  and  their  prices,  can  one  be 
sure  of  the  most  economical  ration.  Sometimes  it  pays 
one  to  sell  the  feeds  on  hand  and  buy  others  in  which  the 
nutrients  can  be  obtained  more  cheaply.  As  the  market 
prices  of  the  different  feeds  are  changeable,  one  has  a  con- 
stantly varying  problem.  The  wide  awake  feeder  always 
has  something  to  think  about  that  is  worth  while. 

Rations  for  a  1,200  lb.  Horse  at  Heavy  Work.— A  1,200 
lb.  horse  at  heavy  work  requires  2.16  lbs.  of  protein,  14.40 
lbs.  of  carbohydrates,  and  .60  lbs.  of  fat. 

The  following  rations  will  approximately  supply  these 
requirements:    See  table  on  page  175. 

Ration  No.  I  ' 

Pro.  C.  H  Fat 

Oats 16  lbs.       1.552  8.3:56  .608 

Timothy  hay 14  lbs.         .420  5.992  .168 

Total  nutrients 1.972       14.328       .776 

Ration  No.  II 

Pro.  C.  H.  Fat 

Corn,  dent 15  lbs.       1.125  10.170  .690 

Clover  hay,  red 14  lbs.       1.064  5.,502  .252 

Total  nutrients 2.189       15.072       .942 


188 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


Ration  No.  m 

Corn,  dent. . . . ; 10  lbs. 

Bran,  wheat 7  lbs. 

Timothy  hay 14  lbs. 


Pro. 
.750 

.875 
.420 


C.H. 

6.780 
2.912 
5.992 


Fat 
.460 
.210 
.168 


Total  nutrients 2.045      15.684 


.838 


Each  of  the  rations  given  above  supplies  approximately 
the  needed  amount  of  each  of  the  digestible  nutrients,  also 

nearly  the  same  amount 
of  bulk.  One  may  reason- 
ably conclude  that,  of 
these  rations,  the  one  that 
can  be  most  cheaply  and 
conveniently  supplied  will 
be  satisfactory.  A  little 
figuring  will  convince  any 
one  that  there  is  a  con- 
siderable saving  by  feed- 
ing ration  No.  II  over 
feeding  No.  I,  and  that 
usually  No.  Ill  will  be 
cheaper  than  No.  I. 

If  one  is  feeding  a 
heavy  ration,  as  one  of 
the  above,  the  grain  should 
be  reduced  considerably, 
if  a  horse  is  to  be  idle  for 
a  few  days. 

A  change  of  feed  occa- 
sionally is  probably  better 
than  to  feed  continually 
IX    ^  fin    T>    J,         .       ,       ,   J      any  one  ration,  as  an  ani- 

Figure  oO, — Bundle  corn  is  a  cheap  feed.  i  •    .  > 

mal  appreciates  a  change 
of  diet  fully  as  much  as  a  person.  An  occasional  feed 
of  bran,  when  horses  are  fed  timothy  hay  and  oats, 
is  a  great  benefit  to  a  horse,  as  it  aids  in  regulating  his 
bowels.  The  addition  of  clover  hay  to  the  ration  cheapens 
it,  and  adds  greatly  to  its  value,  if  the  clover  hay  is  bright 
and  well  cured.    Some  feeders  are  prejudiced  against  clover 


HORSES 


139 


hay  for  horses,  but  good  clover  hay  fed  in  moderation  is 

a  very  desirable  kind  of  feed  for  them. 

Questions: 

1.  What  do  you  understand  by  a  balanced  ration? 

2.  State  the  requirement,  in  digestible  nutrients,  of  a  horse  at 
hard  labor. 

3.  What  can  you  say  regarding  the  proper  combination  of  feeds 
for  horses? 

Arithmetic: 

1.  If  oats  are  worth  40c.  per  bushel  and  timothy  hay  is  worth 
$6.00  per  ton,  what  is  the  cost  of  Ration  No.  I? 

2.  If  com  is  worth  54c.  per  pushel  (56  lbs.)  and  clover  hay  is 
worth  $6.00  per  ton,  what  is  the  cost  of  Ration  No.  II? 

3.  If  bran  is  worth  $24.00  per  ton,  com  54c.  per  bushel,  and  tim- 
othy hay  $6.00  per  ton,  what  is  the  cost  of  Ration  No.  III? 

FEEDING  HORSES  WHEN  IDLE 

Idle  Horses. — Farm  horses  are  idle  or  do  very  little 
work  for  a  considerable  portion  of  the  year,  and  when 
they  are  idle  one  can  greatly  reduce  the  amount  of  grain 
they  get  and  increase  their  allowance  of  hay.  They  do 
not  need  so  much  to  eat,  because  they  are  expending  very 
little  energy.  They  have  plenty  of  time  to  eat  roughage, 
and,  as  roughage  is  cheaper  than  grain,  it  cheapens  the 
ration  very  much  to  reduce  the  proportion  of  grain. 


Figure  81. — A  good  team  of  farm  marea  at  work.  If  much  of  the  farm  work  ia 
done  with  mares,  and  they  are  allowed  to  raise  colts,  the  cost  of  horse  labor  can 
be  materially  reduced. 


190  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Maintenance. — All  that  a  mature  horse  needs  when  idle 
is  enough  to  maintain  his  body.  This  is  called  a  main- 
tenance ration.  If  the  horse  is  poor  when  the  fall  work  is 
finished,  he  will  need  enough  more  than  the  maintenance 
ration  to  enkble  him  to  add  to  his  weight  the  amount  neces- 
sary to  put  him  in  good  condition.  A  young  horse,  three 
to  five  years  old,  is  still  growing,  and  will  need  enough  more 
than  a  maintenance  ration  to  supply  his  needs. 

There  is  always  team  work  to  do  on  the  farm  in  the 
winter;  and  if  several  horses  are  kept  some  of  them  may  be 
used  for  the  winter's  work  and  fed  accordingly.  The  others 
should  be  kept  over  as  cheaply  as  possible. 

If  kept  comfo;:*table,  horses  will  do  very  well  on  just 
hay,  preferably  clover,  and  cornstalks.  If  it  is  desired  to 
increase  their  weight,  a  little  bundle  corn  may  be  fed  in  place 
of  the  stalks. 

Ration  of  Bundle  Corn  and  Clover. — Corn  may  be 
grown,  cut  shocked  and  hauled  in  from  the  field  for  about 
$14.75  per  acre.  If  it  yields  40  bushels  per  acre,  there  will 
be  2,240  lbs.  of  corn  and  probably  about  3,000  lbs-  of  corn- 
stalks. These  cornstalks  are  not  the  best  kind  of  feed,  as 
they  are  too  mature  to  be  easily  digested;  but  they  add 
bulk  to  a  ration.  Maintenance  requirements  for  horses 
have  not  been  so  carefully  worked  out  as  for  cattle,  and 
standards  vary  from  .06  to  .07  lbs.  of  protein  and  .6  to  .7  lbs. 
of  carbohydrates  per  100  lbs.  live  weight  of  horse.  A  1,200 
lb.  horse  requires,  when  idle,  about  .8  lbs.  of  protein,  8  lbs. 
carbohydrates  and  .1  lbs.  of  fat.  The  following  combina- 
tions of  common  farm  feeds  will  be  found  to  supply  about 
the  nutrients  needed.     See  table  on  page  175. 

Ration  No.  I 

Pro.  C.  H  Fat 

Timothy  hay 15  lbs.       .450  6.320  .180 

Oats 4  lbs.       .388  2.084  .152 

Total  nutrients .838        8.404       .332 

Ration  No.  11 

Pro.  C.  H.  Fat 

Corn  stover,  high  in  water 15  lbs.       .210  4.665  .096 

Clover  hay,  red.  . . 8  lbs.       .60S  3.154  .144 

Total  nutrients .818        7.819       .240 


HORSES  191 

Ration  No.  m 

Pro.  C.  H.  Fat 

Bundle  corn,  medium  in  water 13  lbs.       .390  .149  .19") 

Mixed  hay 8  lbs.       .603  3.544  .096 

Total  nutrients 993        9.693       .291 

Bundle  corn  is  about  4-7  ear  corn  and  3-7  stover.  Ear 
corn  is  80%  shelled  corn  and  20%  cob.  So  14  lbs.  of  bundle 
corn  contains  6.4  lbs.  of  corn,  1.6  lbs.  of  cob  and  6  lbs.  of 
stover.  Mixed  hay  is  assumed  to  be  half  clover  and  half 
timothy. 

Ration  No.  *I  represents  a  very  common  ration  for  idle 
horses.  This  ration  would  be  changed  veiy  little,  if  good 
slough  hay  or  upland  hay  were  used  in  place  of  the  timothy. 
Ration  No.  II  is  a  little  cheaper  than  No.  I,  and  will  give 
good  results,  if  both  the  stover  (cornstalks  from  which 
ears  have  been  husked)  and  clover  are  good. 

Ration  No.  Ill  provides  more  nutrients  than  the  others, 
and  will  supply  the  needs  of  a  1,200  lb.  horse  that  is  grow- 
ing or  gaining  in  weight,  or  maintain  a  horse  that  is  doing 
some  light  work  about  the  farm,  as  hauling  straw  or  manure 
for  a  few  hours  occasionally.  It  is  assumed  that  14  lbs. 
of  bundle  corn  contain  6  lbs.  of  corn  and  8  lbs.  of  corn 
stover,  and  that  the  mixed  hay  is  half  clover  and  half  timothy. 
Questions: 

1.  Why  do  horses  need  less  feed  when  idle  than  when  at  work? 

2.  What  is  meant  by  a  maintenance  ration? 

3.  What  can  you  say  regarding  feed  for  idle  horses? 
Arithmetic: 

1.  What  is  the  cost  of  Ration  No.  1,  if  timothy  hay  is  worth 
$6.00  per  ton  and  oats  are  worth  38c.  per  bushel? 

2.  What  is  the  cost  of  Ration  No.  2,  if  corn  stover  is  worth  $3.00 
per  ton  and  clover  hay  is  worth  $6.00  per  ton? 

3.  What  is  the  cost  of  Ration  No.  3,  if  bundle  com  costs  $4.00 
per  ton  and  mixed  hay  is  worth  $6.00  per  ton? 

Exercises: 

1.  If  possible,  weigh  the  feed  of  one  or  more  horses  for  a  month. 
Give  results  in  detail,  stating  the  kind  and  amount  of  labor  performed. 
Estimate  costs  and  value  of  service. 

2.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  items  of  expense  in  maintaining  a  horse. 
In  how  many  different  ways  does  a  horse  pay  for  itself? 


CHAPTER  XV 
CATTLE 

TYPES  AND  BREEDS 

Breeds. — There  are  a  great  many  different  breeds  of 
cattle,  just  as  there  are  many  different  nationaUties  or  races 
of  people.  Each  breed  seems  well  adapted  to  the  particu- 
lar community  in  which  it  was  developed.  Animals  vary 
in  character  with  the  conditions  under  which  they  have 
developed,  which  accounts  for  the  fact  that  all  the  breeds 
of  cattle  have  been  developed  from  the  original  wild  cattle. 
Two  men  may  start  out  with  herds  of  cattle  that  are  very 
similar.  One  will  go  to  a  cold,  rugged  climate,  where  feed 
is  scarce  and  conditions  are  severe.  The  other  may  go  to  a 
warmer  climate,  where  an  abundance  of  feed  is  produced. 
Each  man  will  have  a  different  ideal  and  each  will  select 
the  animals  each  year  that  will  best  please  him.  After  sev- 
eral generations  of  cattle  have  been  produced  the  two  herds 
will  be  quite  different. 

Classes  of  Stock. — Every  boy  should  know  the  common 
breeds  of  cattle,  at  least  by  sight  and  name  and  also  know 
to  what  class  each  belongs.  Cattle  are  commonly  classed  as 
beef  cattle,  those  selected  and  raised  only  for  meat,  dairy 
cattle,  those  selected  and  raised  only  for  milk  and  butter 
production,  and  dual  purpose  or  general  purpose  cattle, 
those  raised  for  both  dairy  products  and  beef.  By  far  the 
greater  number  of  cattle  in  the  United  States  do  not  belong 
to  any  breed,  because  they  have  not  been  carefully  bred 
for  any  particular  purpose,  and  as  a  result  are  by  no  means 
uniform  in  character  as  pure-bred  cattle  are.  Such  cattle 
are  called  scrubs. 

Pure-bred  cattle  have  been  raised  for  a  long  time,  that 
is,  for  many  generations,  by  men  who  have  had  a  definite 
object  or  ideal  in  view.  All  the  animals  that  have  not 
appeared  or  performed  up  to  the  ideals  of  their  owners  have 
been  sold.  Only  the  select  animals  were  kept.  After  fol- 
lowing this  practice  for  very  many  years  all,  or  very  nearly 


CATTLE. 


193 


all,  the  animals  within  a  breed  are  quite  similar.  These 
animals  are  then  recognized  as  a  distinct  breed  of  cattle,  and 
are  called  pure-bred.  They  are  then  given  a  name  that 
indicates  the  country  or  community  in  which  they  were 
developed,  or  some  characteristic  of  the  breed. 

Beef  breeds  are  bred  particularly  for  meat.  They  have 
short  legs,  deep  bodies,  and  broad  backs,  and  tend  to  fatten 
more  easily  than  animals  selected  for  milk  production.  Beef 
cows  usually  give  much  less  milk  than  cows  of  the  strictly 
dairy  breeds. 


Figure  62. — A  fcjhoithuiii  bull,  a  beef  type. 

Shorthorns  are  the  most  common  of  the  beef  breeds 
Being  natives  of  Durham  and  York  counties,  England,  they 
are  often  called  Durham  cattle.  They  are  red,  red  and 
white,  white  or  roan  in  color,  and  one  of  the  large  breeds. 
Some  families,  selected  for  milk  production,  are  called* 'Milk- 
ing Shorthorns." 

Herefordsy  another  beef  breed,  originated  in  Hereford- 
shire, England,  whence  their  name.  They  are  also  large 
and  heavy  and  are  esaily  recognized  by  their  red  color  and 
white  faces.  Often  there  are  white  markings  on  the  top  of 
neck,  breast,  brush  of  the  tail,  and  lower  parts  of  the  legs. 
They  are  good  feeders  and  grazers. 


194 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE. 


Aberdeen  Angus  cattle  originated  in  Aberdeenshire, 
Scotland.  They  are  polled  (hornless),  and  jet  black,  very- 
round,  and  somewhat  lighter  in  weight  than  Shorthorns,  but 
are  thick-fleshed  and  regarded  as  a  very  good  beef  breed. 

Galloways,  another  black  polled  breed,  originated  in  the 
Southwest  of  Scotland.  They  have  very  short  legs,  heavy 
shaggy  coats  of  hair,  and  are  very  rugged  and  inclined  to  be 
wild.  They  are  smaller  than  the  Aberdeen  Angus  and  do 
not  mature  quite  so  young,  but  make  a  very  good  quality 
of  beef.     These  cattle  endure  winter  conditions  well. 


Figure  80. — A  group  of  Herefordis,  a  beef  type. 

Dairy  breeds  have  been  selected  especially  for  large  milk 
production.  Compared  with  beef  cattle,  they  are  more 
angular  in  form,  with  narrow  backs,  thin  necks,  large  udders, 
and  tend  to  produce  milk  rather  than  to  lay  on  flesh. 

These  breeds  are  well  adapted  to  farms  where  milk  or 
dairy  products  are  chiefly  desired.  They  are  generally 
lighter  in  weight  than  the  beef  breeds. 

Holsteins,  the  largest  dairy  breed,  are  black  and  white 
spotted,  and,  of  all  breeds,  give  the  largest  amount  of  milk 
per  cow,  but  it  tests  low  in  butter-fat.  They  originated  in 
Holland,  and  are  very  popular  in  this  country. 

It  is  claimed  that  a  Holstein  cow  produced  37,384.1 
pounds  of  milk  and  1,158  pounds  of  butter-fat  in  one  year. 


CATTLE. 


19J 


m 


J  ^   I        / 


Figure  84. — A  group  of  fine  dairy  cows. 

Guernseys  are  smaller  than  Holsteins  and  give  richer  but 
less  milk.  They  are  yellowish  or  reddish  fawn  in  color,  often 
with  some  white  spots,  especially  on  the  underline.  Their 
milk  often  tests  above  5%.  They  originated  on  the  Island 
of  Guernsey  in  the  English  channel. 

Jerseys  also  originated  in  the  English  channel,  but  on 
the  Island  of  Jersey.  They  are  smaller  than  Guernseys,  are 
fawn  colored,  but  may  be  either  light  or  dark  and  tend  to 


Figure  85. — A  Guernsey  bull,  a  dairy  type. 


196  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE. 

be  lean  and  angular  in  form.  They  have  short,  dished  faces 
and  beautiful  eyes.  They  are  more  widely  distributed  in  this 
country  than  any  other  dairy  breed,  and  are  noted  for  the 
richness  of  their  milk. 

Ayr  shires  are  a  very  beautiful  breed,  from  the  county  of 
Ayr  in  Scotland.  They  are  red  and  white,  or  brown  and 
white,  and  about  the  same  size  as  the  Guernseys,  but  are 


Figuie  8G. — A  Guernsey  cow,  a  dairy  type. 

smoother  and  tend  to  lay  on  flesh  more  than  other  dairy 
breeds.  Their  milk  is  richer  than  that  of  Holsteins,  but  not 
so  rich  as  Jersey  or  Guernsey  milk. 

Dual-purpose  breeds  are  bred  for  both  milk  and  beef. 
Thus  they  are  neither  strictly  beef  nor  strictly  dairy  type. 
Most  of  the  scrub  cattle  would  be  classed  as  dual  purpose. 

Red  Polled  cattle  are  the  only  pure-bred  cattle  usually 
placed  in  this  class.  They  originated  in  England,  are  med- 
ium in  size,  entirely  red,  and  have  no  horns.  Many  of  these 
cows  are  excellent  milkers,  and,  when  fattened,  the  animals 
of  this  breed  produce  very  good  beef. 


CATTLE. 


197 


Shorthorns  that  have  been  selected  particularly  for  milk 
are  included  in  this  class. 

Other  breeds  of  less  importance  in  this  country  are  the 
Dutch  Belted,  Brown  Swiss,  Devon,  Kerry  and  French 
Canadian. 


Figure  87. — A  Holstein  cow,  a  dairy  type. 

Question: 

1 .  What  do  you  understand  by  the  term  pure-bred  cattle?  How 
do  they  differ  from  scrubs? 

2.  Name  some  of  the  characteristics  of  beef  cattle  and  describe 
four  beef  breeds. 

3.  Name  some  of  the  characteristics  of  dairy  cattle,  and  describe 
four  dairy  breeds. 

Arithmethic: 

1.  A  keeps  5  common  cows.  Each  gives  4,000  lbs.  of  4%  milk 
in  a  year.  How  much  is  the  product  worth  at  32c.  per  pound  of  butter- 
fat?  (4%  milk  is  milk  containing  4  lbs.  of  butter-fat  per  100  lbs.) 

2.  B  keeps  5  pure  bred  dairy  cows.  Each  gives  6,000  lbs.  of  5% 
milk  in  a  year.  How  much  is  the  product  worth  at  32c.  per  pound  of 
bvtter-fat? 


198 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


Figure  88. — Champion  Jersey  Cow,  Raleigh's  Sigma,  241848.  When  aged  8  years 
she  produced  17,023.4  lbs.  of  milk  and  859.56  lbs.  of  butter-fat  in  365  days.— 
Courtesy,  Whitacre  &  Son,  West  Liberty,  la. 

3.  A  sells  ten  beef  steers,  weighing  1,400  lbs.  each.     How  much 
do  they  bring  at  7c.  per  pound? 

4.  B  sells  ten  steers,  weighing  1,100  lbs.  each.     How  much  do 
they  bring  at  5c.  per  pound? 


Figure.  89 — A  Shorthorn  cow  and  calf  ot 


purpose  type. 


CATTLE  199 

CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT. 

A  farmer  may  have  the  best  specimens  of  dairy  cattle  or 
beef-producing  breeds,  and  yet,  if  he  does  not  use  judicious 
care  in  the  management  of  them,  the  results  are  likely  to 
end  in  loss  and  disappointment. 

In  addition  to  the  general  suggestions  given  in  the 
chapter  on  live  stock,  the  following  points  in  regard  to  the 
care  and  management  of  cattle  deserve  attention. 

Shade. — In  summer  it  is  very  desirable  that  cattle  be 
provided  with  the  natural  shade  of  trees,  if  possible.  This 
promotes  their  comfort.  Without  the  distraction  of  heat 
and  flies  dairy  cows  give  more  milk  and  beef  cattle  fatten 
more  rapidly.  If  there  are  no  trees  in  the  pasture,  arti- 
ficial shade  should  in  some  way  be  furnished. 

Water. — Both  milch  cows  and  steers  should  be  well 
suppUed  with  fresh  clean  water  and  never  be  allowed  to 
drink  from  stagnant  pools  or  mudholes.  If  running  water 
is  not  convenient,  well  water  is  good,  if  supplied  in  plentiful 
quantities,  preferably  by  a  wind  pump. 

Our  best  dairymen  find  that  it  pays  to  take  the  chill 
off  water  for  the  cows.  A  very  little  fuel  in  a  tank  heater 
will  take  off  the  chill  of  the  water.  If  it  is  not  warmed  in 
this  way,  the  expensive  feed  that  the  cow  eats  will  be  used 
to  warm  the  water.  Besides,  on  a  cold  day  a  cow  will  not 
drink  as  much  ice-cold  water  as  her  system  requires. 

Salt. — If  salt  is  not  kept  constantly  before  cattle,  it 
should  be  given  to  them  regularly  and  frequently.  It 
ought  to  be  so  placed  as  to  be  easily  accessible  and  where  it 
will  be  protected  from  rain. 

Shelter. — It  is  especially  true  of  milch  cows  and  young 
stock  that  they  require  comfortable  shelter.  This  is  not 
simply  a  matter  of  comfort,  but  of  dollars  and  cents.  Steers 
do  not  require  so  warm  quarters  as  long  as  they  are  pro- 
tected from  the  storms  and  the  wind;  but  they  should  be 
kept  dry  and  given  good  bedding.  Steers  are  fed  more 
heavily  and  are  fatter.  They  are  thus  better  able  to  with- 
stand cold. 

Disease. — Occasionally,  as  recently,  the  ''foot  and  mouth 
disease"  makes  its  appearance  with  great  disaster  to  cattle. 
No  remedy  is  known  for  this  epidemic  except  the  slaughter- 


200  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

ing  and  burial  of  the  affected  animals  and  the  maintenance 
of  the  most  perfect  sanitary  conditions.  The  ordinary  disease 
which  is  most  prevalent  among  cattle  is  tuberculosis.  This  is  a 
germ  disease  and  is  likely  to  originate  in  poorly  ventilated 
and  unclean  buildings.  Hence  the  necessity  for  light,  ven- 
tilation and  cleanliness.  To  guard  against  this  disease  it  is 
best  to  kill  all  affected  animals  and  to  have  each  newly 
purchased  animal  tested  before  it  is  brought  on  the  farm. 
There  is  danger  in  keeping  one  diseased  animal  as  it  may 
infect  others  through  feeding  troughs  and  grass. 

Exercise. — All  animals  need  some  exercise,  but  milch 
cows  should  not  be  left  outside  to  shiver  in  the  cold.  One 
practical  dairyman  says,  "Leave  the  cows  out  no  longer 
than  you  care  to  stand  out  in  the  same  place  with  no 
overcoat  on  and  nothing  to  do."  If  one  follows  this  rule, 
cows  will  be  left  out  but  a  short  time  in  the  cold  or  wet 
weather.  Keep  the  cows  in  the  barn  most  of  the  time 
during  the  winter,  and  give  them  a  good  bed  and  plenty  to 
eat  and  drink. 

Flies. — It  is  important,  to  protect  cattle  as  much  as 
possible  from  flies.  Relief  is  afforded  by  darkening  the  stable 
with  curtains  dropped  over  the  windows.  These  may  be 
made  from  burlap  or  old  sacks.  An  effective  spray,  made 
of  three  parts  of  fish  oil  to  one  part  of  kerosene,  may  be 
applied  as  needed. 

Bedding. — Plenty  of  good  bedding  is  not  only  essential 
for  the  comfort  of  cattle,  but  it  pays  for  itself  in  value  as 
fertilizer.  Whatever  the  bedding  used  may  be,  it  should 
be  kept  under  cover  so  that  it  is  dry  and  sweet.  In  this 
condition  it  will  keep  the  barn  sweeter  and  freer  from  dust 
and  will  also  absorb  more  liquid. 
Questions: 

1.  Cattle  naturally  seek  a  shady  place  in  hot  weather.     Why? 

2.  Why  must  cattle  have  plenty  of  clean  water  to  do  well? 

3.  Why  do  fattening  steers  not  require  so  warm  shelter  as  milch 
cows? 

4.  .  In  what  ways  can  we  prevent  disease  in  cattle? 

5.  What  are  the  advantages  of  good  bedding? 
Arithmetic: 

1.  If  six  head  of  cattle  worth  $50  each  were  condemned  and  half 
ine  value  paid  by  the  state,  what  would  be  the  farmer's  loss? 


CATTLE  201 

2.  If  a  cow  drinks  90  pounds  of  water  in  a  day,  how  many  gal- 
lons would  a  herd  of  12  cows  drink  in  a  day?  (A  gallon  of  water  weighs 
about  8J^  lbs.).  How  long  would  it  take  a  boy  to  pump  sufficient 
water  for  these  cows  if  he  could  pump  four  gallons  in  a  minute? 

FEEDING 

REQUIREMENTS  OF  DAIRY  COWS 

Maintenance. — Every  animal  requires  a  certain  amount 
of  feed  for  bodily  maintenance,  even  though  it  may  be  idle, 
to  keep  up  the  body  heat,  for  digestion,  and  for  the  other 
functions  of  the  body.  The  requirements  for  maintenance 
are  approximately  the  same  for  all  animals  of  the  same 
class  and  weight  and  kept  under  similar  conditions. 

The  amount  of  such  feed  has  been  determined  by  feeding 
for  several  months,  mature,  idle  animals  kept  under  normal 
conditions,  and  by  weighing  the  feed  fed  and  weighing  the 
animals,  and  by  regulating  the  feed  so  that  the  various 
animals  neither  gain  nor  lose  in  weight. 

Prof.  T.  L.  Haecker,  of  the  Minnesota  Experiment 
Station,  has  found  by  extensive  tests  that  .07  of  a  pound  of 
protein,  .7  of  a  pound  of  carbohydrates,  and  .01  of  a  pound 
of  fat  are  required  per  hiyidred  pounds  live  weight  to  main- 
tain a  cow  not  giving  milk.  If  a  cow  weighs  1,000  pounds, 
it  will  require  ten  times  these  amounts  for  maintenance. 

Nutrients  Required. — Prof.  Haecker  has  found  also 
that  the  more  milk  a  cow  gives  the  more  feed  she  needs, 
and  the  richer  the  milk  the  more  feed  required  to  produce 
it.  For  the  convenience  of  feeders  he  has  compiled  a  table 
from  which  the  following  is  taken.  Any  one,  knowing  the 
weight  of  a  cow  and  the  amount  and  richness  of  her  milk, 
can  easily  determine  the  amount  of  nutrients  she  needs  for 
maintenance  and  to  produce  milk. 

Nutrients  Required  to  Produce  One  Pound  of  Milk  of  a  Given 

Per  Cent  of  Butter-fat 

Per  Cent  Fat                     Protem  Carbohydrate  Fat 

3                                  .042  .19  .013 

3.5                               .045  .21  .015 

♦4                                   .048  .23  .016 

4.5                               .051  .25  .018 

6                                  .054  .27  .019 

5.5                               .057  .29  .020 

6                                  .060  .31  .022 


202  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

From  the  last  table  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  determine 
the  amount  of  nutrients  required  to  produce  a  given  number 
of  pounds  of  milk  of  a  given  per  cent  of  fat.  For  example, 
a  cow  that  gives  15  lbs.  of  4%  milk  will  require,  for  its 
production,  15  times  as  much  of  the  nutrients  as  is  required 
to  produce  one  pound  of  milk  of  the  same  quality.  (See 
star  in  table  on  the  preceding  page.) 

Fifteen  times  .048  lbs.  of  protein,  .23  lbs.  of  carbohydrates 
and  .016  lbs.  of  fat  equals  .72  lbs.  of  protein,  3.45  lbs.  of  carbo- 
hydrates and  .24  lbs.  of  fat.  Thus,  it  will  be  seen  that  a 
cow  requires  .72  lbs.  of  protein,  3.45  lbs.  of  carbohydrates 
and  .24  lbs.  of  fat,  simply  for  the  production  of  milk.  In 
addition  to  this,  she  must  be  supplied  with  feed  for  bodily 
maintenance.  If  the  cow  weighs  1,100  lbs.  she  will  re- 
quire 11  times  .07  lbs.  of  protein,  .7  lbs.  of  carbohydrates 
and  .01  lbs.  of  fat  (the  amount  required  to  maintain  100 
lbs.  live  weight)  or  .77  lbs.  of  protein,  7.7  lbs.  of  carbohy- 
drates and  .11  lbs.  of  fat.  We  know,  then,  that  a  cow 
weighing  eleven  hundred  pounds,  and  giving  15  pounds  of 
4%  milk  requires  daily: 

Pro.      C.  H.       Fat 

For  maintenance .' 77  7.7  .11 

For  15  lbs.  of  4%  milk .72  3.45  .24 

Total  daily  requirement 1.49         11.15  .35 

From  the  above  it  will  be  seen  that,  to  determine  the 
requirements  of  a  cow,  one  must  know  approximately  her 
weight,  her  daily  milk  production  and  its  per  cent  of  fat. 
If  these  facts  are  known,  it  is,  with  the  table,  a  very  simple 
mathematical  problem  to  determine  her  daily  needs. 

Questions: 

1.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  term  "food  of  maintenance?" 

2.  How  have  feeders  found  out  how  much  feed  animals  require 
for  maintenance? 

3.  Why  does  a  cow  require  more  feed  when  giving  20  lbs.  of  4% 
milk  than  when  she  is  giving  10  lbs.  of  4%  milk? 

4.  What  three  factors  must  be  known  in  order  to  determine  the 
daily  feed  requirements  of  a  cow? 

Arithmetic: 

1.  For  bodily  maintenance  a  cow  requires  .07  lbs.  of  protein, 
.7  lbs.  of  carbohydrates  and  .01  lbs.  of  fat  per  100  lbs.  live  weight. 
How  many  pounds  of  each  nutrient  are  required  to  maintain  a  cow 
weighing  1,050  lbs? 


UATTLE  203 

2.  If  .051  lbs.  of  protein,  .25  lbs.  of  carbohydrates  and  .018  lbs. 
3f  fat  are  required  to  produce  1  lb.  of  4^^%  milk,  how  many  pounds  of 
each  nutrient  are  required  to  produce  18  lbs.  of  4}4%  milk? 

3.  How  much  protein,  carbohydrates  and  fat  will  a  1,050-pound 
cow  giving  18  lbs.  of  43^%  milk  require? 

TO  COMPOUND  A  RATION 

Proportion  of  Grain  to  Roughage. — When  one  knows 
a  cow's  requirements  it  is  a  very  simple  matter,  by  using 
the  table  on  page  175,  showing  the  composition  of  feeds, 
to  compound  a  ration  that  will  supply  them. 

We  have  found  that  an  eleven  hundred  pound  cow 
giving  15  lbs.  of  4%  milk  daily  requires  daily  1.49  lbs.  of 
protein,  11.15  lbs.  of  carbohydrates  and  .35  lbs.  of  fat. 
A  cow  could  not  eat  enough  roughage  to  supply  this  amount 
of  nutrient.  She  must  have  some  more  concentrated  feed 
such  as  grain.  Many  dairymen  feed  grain  in  the  proportion 
of  1  lb.  of  grain  to  each  3  lbs.  of  milk  that  the  cow  gives, 
and  supply  the  rest  of  the  nutrients  required  by  feeding 
roughage.  This  is  practically  a  safe  basis.  Thus  the  cow, 
whose  record  is  given  above,  would  require  about  5  lbs.  of 
grain  (as  she  gives  15  lbs.  of  milk  daily)  and  roughage  to 
complete  the  ration. 

A  Simple   Ration. — To   compound   a  ration  one  must 
know  the   comjx)sition   of  various  feeds   to  be  fed.     See 
table,  page  175. 
Daily  Ration  for  1,100  Pound  Cow  Giving  15  Lbs.  of  4%  Milk  Daily 

Pro       C.  H         Fat 

Com,  dent 3  lbs.       .225      20.34         .138 

Bran,  wheat 2  lb.        .250        8.32         .060 

Clover  hay,  red 11  lbs.       .836      4.323         .198 

Fodder  corn,  medium  dry 8  lbs.       .240      3.784         .120 

Total  nutrients 1.551     10.973         .516 

It  wiU  be  seen  that  this  ration  contains  approximately 
the  right  amount  of  protein,  for  which  no  other  nutrient 
may  be  substituted,  but  is  a  little  deficient  in  carbohydrates. 
There  is  .17  lbs.  more  fat  than  is  required,  which  may 
be  used  to  make  up  the  shortage  in  carbohydrates.  We  have 
learned  that  fat  and  carbohydrates  are  used  for  the  same 
purposes  in  the  animal  body,  and  that  fat  is  worth  2.2 
times  as  much  as  carbohydrates,  hence  the  excess  fat  (.17x2.2) 
is  equal  to  .37  of  a  pound  of  carbohydrates;  which,  added 


204 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


to  the  10.97  lbs.  furnished  by  the  ration,  makes  11.34  lbs. 
or  approximately  what  is  required. 

Features  of  the  Previous  Ration. — It  is  not  usually  de- 
sirable to  feed  as  large  a  proportion  of  corn  to  dairy  cows 
as  is  provided  by  this  ration,  as  corn  has  a  tendency  to 
produce  fat  rather  than  milk.  But  when  clover  hay,  which 
is  rich  in  protein,  is  fed,  a  large  proportion  of  corn  or  other 
non-nitrogenous    grains    may    be    used.     When    timothy, 


Figure  90. — Mixing  the  grain  feed  consisting  of  100  lbs.  of  bran  and  400  lbs.  of 

cornmeal. 

corn  stover  or  wild  hay,  which  are  deficient  in  protein, 
are  fed  for  roughage,  a  larger  amount  of  bran  or  other  nitrog- 
enous grain  would  be  required. 

Since  clover  can  be  grown  as  cheaply  as  any  hay  crop, 
it  is  advisable  to  provide  plenty  of  well  cured  clover  hay; 
for  it  makes  possible  the  use  of  cheaper  grain  feeds,  as  corn 
and  barley,  instead  of  oats,  bran  and  oil  meal,  which  must 
be  fed,  if  non-nitrogenous  roughage  is  used. 


VATTLE  205 

Feeding  a  Ration. — To  feed  a  cow  such  a  ration,  it  is 
not  necessary  to  weigh  each  day  4  lbs.  of  corn,  1  lb.  of  bran 
and  the  hay  and  fodder.  One  would  mix  100  lbs.  or  more  of 
bran  with  four  times  as  much  corn.  In  feeding,  use  a  measure 
that  holds  the  desired  number  of  pounds  of  the  mixture. 
By  weighing  the  feeds  a  few  times  one  can  soon  approximate 
the  right  amount  of  each  without  weighing  it. 
Questions: 

1.  In  what  way  can  one  determine  approximately  the  amount 
of  grain  needed  by  a  cow? 

2.  Tell  how  to  compound  a  ration  for  a  cow. 

3.  Would  you  weigh  the  ration  each  time  you  feed? 
Arithmetic: 

1.  What  is  the  cost  of  a  ration  composed  of  4  lbs.  of  corn  at 
54c.  per  bushel,  (56  lbs.),  1  lb.  of  bran  at  $20  per  ton,  10  lbs.  of  clover 
hay  at  $5.00  per  ton,  and  10  lbs.  of  corn  fodder  at  $4.00  per  ton? 

2.  A  cow  fed  the  above  ration  gives  15  lbs.  of  4%  milk.  What 
is  the  milk  worth  when  butter-fat  is  selUng  for  30c.  per  pound? 

3.  How  many  pounds  of  protein  in  one  ton  of  bran?  What  does 
it  cost  per  pound  when  bran  costs  $20  per  ton? 

POOR  AND  GOOD  RATIONS 

A  Poor  Ration. — A  very  common  ration  fed  to  dairy 
cows  on  the  farm  is  composed  of  slough  hay,  corn  stover, 
and  ground  barley  and  corn.  Suppose  a  1,000-lb.  cow 
gives  20  lbs.  of  milk  testing  4.5%  fat.     She  will  require: 

Pro.       C.  H.        Fat 

For  maintenance 7  7.  .1 

For  20  lbs.  of  4.5%  milk 1.02        5.  .36 

Total  requirements 1.72       12.  .46 

A  COW  giving  20  lbs.  of  milk  would  require  7  or  8  lbs. 
of  grain.  Let  us  see  what  kind  of  a  ration  she  would  get, 
if  fed  the  above  mentioned  feeds: 

Daily  Ration  for.  a  1,000  lb.  Cow  Giving  20  lbs.  of  4.6%  Milk 

Pro.       C.  H.        Fat 

Corn,  dent. 4  lbs.       .300        2.77         .184 

Barley 3  lbs.       .270        2.00         .048 

Swamp  grass 12  lbs.       .420        4.81         .096 

Corn  stover,  high  in  water 12  lbs.       .168        3.73         .072 

Total  nutrients 1.158       13.31         .400 

This  ration  would  be  all  a  cow  could  possibly  eat,  as  it 
supplies  31  lbs,  of  dry  feed,  yet  it  comes  far  short  of  supply- 
ing wiough  protein.    We  have  learned  that  neither  carbo- 


206  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

hydrates  nor  fats  can  take  the  place  of  protein.  A  cow 
must  have  sufficient  protein  or  she  cannot  maintain  her 
body  or  produce  milk.  It  is  not  to  be  wondered  at,  then, 
that  a  cow  fed  a  ration  similar  to  the  above  would  gradually 
decrease  in  her  milk  flow  until  her  requirements  balanced 
the  protein  she  was  getting.  She  would  then  get  more 
carbohydrates  (fat-forming  feed)  than  needed  for  milk 
production,  and  so  would  begin  to  fatten,  an  undesirable 
result  in  a  milch  cow. 

A  Good  Ration. — The  required  nutrients  for  the  cow 
mentioned  above  could  be  supplied  by  replacing  3  lbs.  of 
the  corn  or  barley  with  3  lbs.  of  oil  meal  (try  it);  but  such 
a  ration  would  be  more  expensive  and  no  better  than  if  the 
12  lbs.  of  slough  hay  and  7  lbs.  of  the  corn  stover  were 
replaced  with  16  lbs.  of  clover  hay.  This  would  make  a 
good  ration  and  supply  the  need  of  the  cow. 

Daily  Ration  for  a  1,000  lb   Cow  Giving  20  lbs.  of  4.5%  Milk 

Pro.       C.  H.       Fat 

Corn,  dent 4  lbs.       .300        2.77         .184 

Barley 3  lbs.       .270        2.00         .048 

Corn  stover,  high  in  water 5  lbs.       .070         1.56         .030 

Clover  hay,  red 15  lbs.     1.140        5.90         270 

Total  nutrients 1.780       12.23         .532 

This    ration    emphasizes    the    fact    that    every    farmer 
should  provide  plenty  of  good  clover  hay  for  his  cattle. 
Questions: 

1.  Can  you  tell  what  is  wrong  with  the  ration  given  under  the 
head    "A    poor    ration?" 

2.  Why  would  a  cow  be  unable  to  keep  up  her  flow  of  milk,  if 
fed  such  a  ration? 

3.  Why  is  the  ration  given  under  the  head  "A  good  ration" 
better  than  the  other? 

Arithmetic: 

1.  Find  the  cost  of  the  grain  in  the  above  ration,  4  lbs.  of  corn 
and  3  lbs.  of  barley.  (Corn  50c.  per  bushel  (56  lbs.),  and  barley  50c. 
per  bushel  (48  lbs.).) 

2.  Find  the  cost  of  a  similar  ration,  if  3  lbs.  of  com  were  replaced 
with  3  lbs.  of  oil  meal,  making  the  grain  ration  1  lb.  of  corn,  3  lbs.  of 
oil  meal  and  3  lbs.  of  barley.     (Oil  meal  costs  $35.00  per  ton.) 

3.  What  is  tJie  entire  cost  of  the  last  ration  given,  com  50c.  per 
bushel,  barley  50c.  per  bushel,  clover  hay  $5  per  ton  and  com  stover 
$3  per  ton? 

4.  Find  the  requirements  of  a  1,200  lb.  cow,  givirg  35  lbs.  of  milk 
testing  3.5%  fat. 


CATTLE 


20" 


SUCCULENT  FEED 

Kind  of  Ration. — On  page  192,  a  ration  was  suggested 
for  an  eleven  hundred  pound  dairy  cow  giving  15  lbs.  of 
4%  milk.  This  ration  consisted  of  4  lbs.  of  cornmeal,  1 
lb.  of  bran,  12  lbs.  of  clover  hay  and  10  lbs.  of  fodder  corn. 
It  supplied  all  the  nutrients  in  the  proportion  needed  by 
the  cow,  and,  if  the  cow  were  made  comfortable  and  regu- 
larly fed  and  milked,  she  would  do  fairly  well.  Such  a 
ration  is  more  economical  and  will  give  better  returns  than 

the  ordinary  ration  of 

timothy  or  wild  hay, 
corn  stover  and  some 
of  the  common  farm 
grains,  as  barley  or  corn. 
Cows  Need  Succu- 
ulent  Feed. — We  know 
that  cows  usually  give 
the  most  milk  when 
they  are  in  good  pas- 
ture. Their  chief  feed 
is  then  green  grass. 
This  fact  would  indi- 
cate that  such  feed  is 
better  for  milk  produc- 
tion than  the  dry  feeds 
fed  in  winter.  Green 
feed  is  more  easily  di- 
gested than  dry,  coarse 
fodder,  such  as  hay, 
fodder  corn  and  com 
stover.  Less  energy, 
moreover,  is  required  to 
digest  it,  it  tends  to 
keep  the  body  and  di- 
gestion in  better  con- 
dition, and  it  stimu- 
lates the  appetite.  In  the  winter,  when  fresh  vegetables 
are  scarce  and  we  eat  potatoes,  bread  and  meat  for  a 
long  time,  we  become  tired  of  them  and  crave  some- 
thing succulent,  as   fruit  and  green  vegetables.     In  well 


Figure  91. — Filling  a  silo  at  University 
Farm.  Corn  is  cut  while  still  green,  when 
ears  are  well  glazed,  hauled  directly,  cut 
and  put  in  the  silo.  Silage  does  not  spoil, 
because  air  is  kept  away  from  it.  It  is  still 
green  and  succulent  when  fed. 


208 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


regulated  homes  such  food  is  suppUed  by  canned  or  fresh 
vegetables  and  fruits.  The  barrel  of  apples  in  the  cellar 
is  not  exceedingly  valuable  from  the  standpoint  of  amount  of 
nourishment  it  contains  but  from  the  succulence  and  re- 
freshing effect  of  the  apples.  In  like  manner  it  pays  to 
supply  the  live  stock  on  the  farm  with  something  to  take 
the  place  of  the  green  grass  they  get  in  the  summer.  The 
whole  ration  need  not  be  of  succulent  material,  but  that  a 


j^'^^i^P^ 


Iti/i^' 


Figure  92. — A  load  of  mangels.  Mangels  may  be  grown  at  from  $1.60  to  $2.00 
per  ton.  They  are  a  very  valuable  addition  to  the  dry  feeds  commonly  fed  in 
winter,  as  they  are  palatable  and  succulent. 

portion  of  it  should  be  is  quite  essential  to  best  results. 
Just  as  an  apple  each  day  is  good  for  a  boy  or  girl,  so  are  a 
few  pounds  of  succulent  feed  (such  as  roots  or  silage)  each 
day  good  for  farm  animals. 

Ensilage  is  one  of  the  cheapest  succulent  feeds  during 
the  winter,  that  is,  when  one  has  a  large  herd  and  is  able 
to  build  a  silo  and  buy  the  necessary  machinery  for  handling 
the  crop.  It  is  good  feed,  handy  and  very  much  reUshed  by 
all  classes  of  stock. 


CATTLE  209 

Ensilage  is  usually  corn,  (sometimes  other  crops),  stored 
green  in  a  large  tank  called  a  silo.  The  silo  must  be  air- 
tight or  nearly  so,  as  the  green  feed  is  kept  from  spoiling 
by  keeping  the  air  away  from  it — ^just  as  berries  are  pre- 
served in  fruit  jars. 

Roots. — Another  way  by  which  succulent  feed  may  be 
supplied  is  by  raising  roots,  as  mangels,  rutabagas,  stock 
carrots,  etc.  For  small  herds,  roots  are  cheaper  than  en- 
silage, as  no  expensive  machinery  or  storage  room  is  required. 
By  planting  roots  on  rich  land,  fifteen  to  twenty  tons  may 
be  grown  per  acre.  One  half  an  acre  to  two  acres  of  roots 
well  cared  for  will  supply  from  eight  to  twelve  cows. 
Questions: 

1.  Why  do  cows  usually  give  more  milk  in  summer  than  in 
winter? 

2.  What  is  the  difference  in  their  feed  in  summer  and  winter? 

3.  What  do  animals  need  in  winter  in  addition  to  dry  feed? 

4.  How  may  succulent  feed  be  supplied  to  animals  in  winter? 

5.  To  what  conditions  is  ensilage  better  adapted  than  mangels? 

6.  What  do  people  eat  in  winter  to  supply  succulent  food? 
Arithmetic: 

1.  If  com  contains  89%  dry  matter  and  mangels  contain  9% 
dry  matter,  how  many  pounds  of  mangels  are  required  to  supply  as 
much  dry  matter  as  is  supplied  by  5  lbs.  of  com? 

2.  If  mangels  contain  9%  dry  matter,  how  many  pounds  of  water 
in  100  lbs.  of  mangels? 

3.  If  mangels  yield  20  tons  per  acre,  how  many  tons  of  dry  matter 
are  produced  per  acre?     (Mangels  are  9%  dry  matter.) 

RATIONS  CONTAINING  SUCCULENT  FEED 

Composition  of  Feeds. — To  intelligently  compound  ra- 
tions with  ensilage  or  roots  forming  a  part,  it  is  necessary  to 
know  the  amount  of  digestible  nutrients  in  the  various 
feeds  used.     The  table  on  page  175  gives  their  compositior 
in  the  two  rations  to  be  compounded. 

A  glance  at  the  table  will  show  that  a  pound  of 
corn  silage  contains  about  one  third  as  much  digestible 
nutrients  as  fodder  corn. 

This  proportion  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  ensilage  has 
practically  as  much  water  in  it  as  when  it  was  cut  green 
in  the  field,  while  the  fodder  corn  has  been  dried  out  (cured). 
In  other  words  three  pounds  of  green  corn,  cut  and  shocked 
in  the  field,  will  dry  out  and  make  about  one  pound  of  fodder 


210  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

com.  We  would  need,  then,  to  feed  about  three  times  as 
many  pounds  of  ensilage  as  of  fodder  corn  to  get  the  same 
amount  of  nutrients.  But  ensilage  has  the  additional  value 
of  stimulating  digestion  and  keeping  the  animal  in  a  good 
healthy  condition. 

Ration  Containing  Ensilage. — The  ration  suggested  on 
page  193,  for  an  1,100-pound  cow  giving  15  pounds  of  4  per 
cent  milk,  as  suggested,  consisted  of  4  pounds  of  cornmeal, 
1  pound  of  bran,  10  pounds  of  clover  hay  and  10  pounds 
of  fodder  corn.  This  supplied  approximately  the  nutrients 
needed  by  the  cow,  which  are  1.49  pounds  of  protein,  11.15 
pounds  of  carbohydrates  and  .35  of  a  pound  of  fat. 

Ration  Containing  Ensilage,  for  1,100  Pound  Cow  Giving  15  Pounds 
of  4  per  Cent  Milk 

Pro.  C.  H.  Fat 

Cornmeal 4  lbs.       .276  2.760  .140 

Bran,  wheat lib.        .125  .416  .030 

Clover  hay,  red 10  lbs.       .760  3.930  .180 

Corn  silage 30  lbs.       .330  4.500  .210 

Total  nutrients 1.491       11.606       .560 

The  aboTe  ration  furnishes  approximately  the  nutri- 
ents required.  It  differs  from  the  ration  given  on  page  193 
only  in  containing  thirty  pounds  of  corn  silage  in  place  of 
ten  pounds  of  fodder  corn.  So  far  as  nutrients  are  con- 
cerned, there  is  very  little  difference;  but  a  cow  would  give 
better  returns  on  this  ration  than  on  the  former,  owing 
to  the  succulence  added  by  the  ensilage,  which  makes  the 
whole  ration  more  palatable  and  more  easily  digested. 

Ration  Containing  Roots  for  1,100  Pound  Cow  Giving   15  Pounds 
of  4  per  Cent  Milk 

Pro.  C.  H.  Fat 

Corn,  dent 4  lbs.       .300  2.770  .184 

Bran,  wheat 1  lb.        .125  .416  .030 

Clover  hay,  red 10  lbs.       .760  3.930  .180 

Mangels 20  lbs.       .160  1.280  .020 

Fodder  corn 8  lbs.       .240  3.784  .120 

Total  nutrients 1.585       12.180       .534 

It  will  be  seen  that  mangels  do  not  provide  so  much 
nutrient  matter  per  pound  as  the  ensilage,  but  are  a  little 
more  valuable  as  a  means  of  furnishing  succulence,  as 
they  are  sweet,  while  ensilage  is  more  or  less  sour. 


CATTLE  211 

To  get  enough  carbohydrates  in  this  ration  it  was 
necessary  to  add  some  fodder  corn.  A  ration  containing 
both  clover  hay  and  fodder  corn  can  usually  be  balanced 
by  changing  the  proportion  of  these  two  feeds.  Fodder 
corn  is  rich  in  carbohydrates  and  clover  hay  in  protein. 
Questions: 

1.  How  do  fodder  com  and  com  silage  compare  in  feeding  value?^ 

2.  For  what  reason  is  a  ration  containing  ensilage  better  than  one 
containing  only  cured  roughage? 

3.  In  v/hat  respect  do  mangels  and  ensilage  differ? 
Arithmetic: 

1.  Find  the  daily  requirements  of  protein,  carbohydrates  and 
fat  for  a  1,000-lb.  cow  giving  20  lbs.  of  4%  milk.     See  page  202. 

2.  Find  the  amount  of  protein,  carbohydrates  and  fat  in  5  lbs. 
of  commeal,  2  lbs.  of  bran,  12  lbs.  of  clover  hay  and  9  lbs.  of  fodder 
com.     (See  page  175.) 

3.  Find  the  amount  of  protein,  carbohydrates  and  fat  in  a  ration, 
the  same  as  the  above,  but  replace  the  9  lbs.  of  fodder  com  with  27  lbs. 
of   corn   ensilage. 

4.  Find  the  amount  of  fodder  corn  and  mangels  required  to  fur- 
nish about  the  same  amount  of  nutrient  as  27  lbs.  of  silage. 

Exercises: 

1 .  Make  a  list  of  all  the  different  breeds  of  cattle  in  the  community 
stating  which  are  kept  for  beef  only,  which  for  dairy  products  only, 
and  which  for  both. 

2.  Describe  carefully  some  favorite  breed  of  cattle  and  set  forth 
fully  the  reasons  for  the  preference. 

3.  Keep  a  record  for  a  month  showing  amount  and  value  of  feed' 
given  to  a  dairy  cow  together  with  amount  and  value  of  all  her  product, 

4.  Observe  the  care  received  by  cattle  on  various  farms  and  try 
to  show  how.icare  pays  and  neglect  results  in  loss. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
DAIRYING 

MILK  AND  ITS  CARE 

Milk. — Milk  is  nature's  perfect  food  for  animals.  It 
consists  of  water  87%,  sugar  (carbohydrates)  5%,  fat  4%, 
casein  and  albumin  (protein)  3.3%,  and  ash  .7%.  In  1909 
nearly  seven  and  a  half  billion  gallons  of  milk  were  pro- 
duced on  the  farms  of  the  United  States,  the  value  of  the 
product  of  which,  excluding  home  consumption,  was  almost 
six  hundred  miUions  of  dollars.  The  average  number  of 
gallons  produced  per  cow  was  362.  It  is  readily  seen, 
therefore,  that  in  comparison  with  the  record  given  below, 
there  is  much  room  for  improvement  in  the  amount  that 
might  be  realized.  At  present  the  world's  champion  milk- 
producing  cow,  Lutscke  Vale  Cornucopia,  has  produced 
31,243.4  pounds  (3,633  gallons)  of  milk  in  one  year,  an  aver- 
age of  10  gallons  a  day.  Of  this  amount  798.96  pounds  was 
butterfat.     This  cow  is  a  Holstein. 

iviiiK  nolas  tne  tiny  particles  of  butter-fat  in  suspension. 
Such  a  Uquid  is  called  an  emulsion.  The  butter-fat  is 
lighter  than  the  rest  of  the  milk,  and,  therefore,  rises  to 
the  surface;  but  milk  as  a  whole,  is  .032  heavier  than  water. 
As  human  food  milk  contains  all  the  elements  neces- 
sary to  the  human  body  and  in  very  nearly  the  proportions 
needed.  It  contains  protein,  muscle-forming  material,  in 
casein;  carbohydrates,  heat  and  energy-forming  material,  in 
fat  and  sugar;  and  ash,  or  mineral  matter,  needed  in  bone- 
building.  The  average  American  family  spends  from  two 
to  four  times  as  much  for  milk,  cream  and  butter  as  for 
bread.  Cow's  milk  is  a  very  good  substitute  for  mother's 
milk  for  babies.  In  fact  pure,  fresh  milk  is  almost  necessary 
for  growing  children. 

On  account  of  the  importance  of  milk  and  milk  products 
as  human  food  it  is  very  important  that  they  be  handled  in 
a  most  careful  manner. 


DAIRYING  213 

Care  of  Milk. — As  milk  is  so  extensively  used  as  a 
human  food,  the  proper  care  of  it  needs  to  be  emphasized. 
Attention  should  be  given  to 

The  Stable. — This  must  be  well  Ughted  and  ventilated 
to  assist  in  keeping  it  free  from  bacteria  and  odors.  Dust 
also  should  be  prevented  as  much  as  possible,  and  coverings 
should  be  provided  for  the  pails  while  in  the  stable. 

The  Cow. — She  should  be  kept  scrupulously  clean,  and 
her  udder  and  teats  should  be  washed  before  milking.  All 
milch  cows  should  be  curried. 

The  Milker. — The  person  who  milks  should  wear  clean 
clothes  and  have  clean  dry  hands.  The  hands  should  never 
be  put  in  the  milk. 

The  Utensils. — Porcelain  or  smooth  tin  pails  without 
open  seams  are  best.  These  should  be  scalded  after  every 
milking  and  allowed  to  stand  in  the  sun  and  air.  The 
churn  should  be  scalded  also,  as  well  as  the  parts  of  a  sep- 
arator, and  all  bottles. 

Keeping. — Milk  should  be  removed  from  the  stable  as 
soon  as  possible  and  chilled.  Low  temperatures  are  un- 
favorable to  bacteria.  The  milk  should  be  kept  where  it 
will  not  be  possible  for  it  to  absorb  any  unpleasant  odors, 
as  it  is  inclined  to  do. 

Souring. — Very  minute  plants,  called  bacteria,  find  in 
milk  a  fertile  field  for  development.  In  their  growth  they 
change  the  milk  sugar  to  lactic  acid,  which  ''sours"  the 
milk  and  curdles  it.  This  may  be  prevented  by  extreme 
cleanliness  and  low  temperature  which  does  not  favor 
the  growth  of  bacteria. 

Pasteurization. — Milk  may  be  kept  longer  by  heating 
it  for  twenty  minutes  at  a  temperature  of  160°  F.  and 
then  cooling  it  rapidly.  This  process  is  called  Pasteuriza- 
tion. It  destroys  any  bacteria  that  may  be  present.  In 
many  cities  there  is  a  law  that  milk  must  be  so  treated. 
When  milk  is  heated  above  180°  F.,  as  at  that  temperature 
there  is  extra  certainty  that  the  bacteria  will  all  be  killed, 
it  is  said  to  be  "sterilized." 

Sanitary  plants,  to  produce  absolutely  pure  milk,  take 
all  these  precautions. 


214  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Questions: 

1.  A  pound  of  milk  is  said  to  possess  practically  as  much  nourish- 
ment as  a  pound  of  beefsteak.     Which  is  cheaper? 

2.  How  many  pounds  or  gallons  of  milk  are  your  cows  or  others 
in  your  community  giving  per  day?  Per  year?  Is  it  more  or  less  than 
the  average? 

3.  When  all  things  are  considered,  does  it  cost  more  to  keep  a 
good  cow  than  a  poor  one? 

4.  Why  is  it  that  milk  is  so  perfect  a  food? 

5.  Why  is  it  important  to  be  so  particular  in  the  care  of  milk? 
Arithmetic: 

1.  If  butter-fat  is  worth  28c.  per  pound,  what  was  the  value  of 
the  butter-fat  produced  in  one  year  by  the  World's  Champion  Cow? 

2.  If  the  cow  that  gives  362  gallons  of  milk  a  year  produced 
4.14%  of  butter-fat,  what  is  the  value  of  her  butter-fat  compared  with 
the  champion? 

3.  If  patrons  will  pay  Ic.  a  quart  extra  for  good  clean  milk,  how 
much  extra  might  be  received  from  the  champion's  3,644  gallons? 

TESTING  MILK 

Babcock  Test. — The  Babcock  Test  is  one  of  the  great 
inventions  of  the  age,  and  has  done  a  great  deal  for  the 
dairy  industry.  Before  this  invention  there  was  no  way 
to  tell  the  different  grades  of  milk.  It  was  known  that 
some  cows  gave  richer  milk  than  others,  but  the  only  way 
to  tell  the  amount  of  butter-fat  in  a  given  sample  was  to 
raise  the  cream  and  make  it  into  butter.  When  all  the 
butter  was  made  on  the  home  farms,  it  was  not  so  necessary 
to  know  the  quality  of  milk;  but  when  creameries  became 
common,  and  milk  was  sold,  it  became  important  to  know 
how  much  butter-fat  each  sample  contained,  so  that  it  could 
be  paid  for  in  proportion  to  its  value. 

Dr.  Babcock  realized  this  need,  and,  after  years  of  effort, 
invented  a  test  by  which  any  sample  of  milk  may  be  tested 
in  a  very  short  time  and  its  per  cent  of  butter-fat  determined. 
Thus  it  is  possible  for  every  farmer,  who  hauls  milk  to  a 
creamery,  to  be  paid  for  it  in  exact  proportion  to  the  amount 
of  butter-fat  it  contains. 

Principle  of  the  Test. — This  test  is  very  simple,  and 
makes  use  of  a  few  facts  that  everyone  knew  before  the 
test  was  invented.  It  was  known  that,  if  milk  were  set 
away  for  several  hours,  cream  would  rise  to  the  top.  This 
fact  indicated  that  cream  is  lighter  than  the  other  parts 
of  the  milk.     Every  boy  who  has  ever  turned  a  grindstone 


DAIRYING  215 

knows  that,  if  water  is  poured  on  a  grindstone,  and  the 
stone  turned  rapidly,  the  water  is  thrown  off.  This  indi- 
cates that  anything  revolving  has  a  tendency  to  be  forced 
away  from  the  point  around  which  it  is  revolving. 

Dr.  Babcock  made  use  of  these  two  principles  by  de- 
vising a  machine  in  which  bottles  can  be  set  and  revolved 
rapidly.  To  make  the  test,  a  certain  amount  of  milk  is 
put  in  a  test  bottle  and  some  sulphuric  acid  added.  The 
acid  assists  in  breaking  down  the  milk,  and  makes  it  easier 
for  the  fat  to  be  separated  from  it.  The  test  bottles  are 
put  in  the  machine,  which  is  then  turned  at  a  given  speed. 
The  cups  in  which  the  bottles  are  set  swing  outward,  as  the 
speed  increases,  until  the  bottles  are  in  a  horizontal  posi- 
tion, with  the  bottoms  the  farthest  away  from  the  center, 
around  which  they  are  revolving.  This  rapid  revolving 
tends  to  force  all  the  milk  into  the  bottom  of  the  bottle, 
just  as  turning  the  grindstone  tends  to  throw  water  away 
from  it.  Milk,  being  heavier  than  cream,  is  crowded  with 
more  force  into  the  bottom  of  the  bottles,  and  the  fat  rises 
into  the  necks.  The  acid  added  to  the  milk  causes  it  to 
turn  dark,  and  the  butter-fat  is  amber  colored,  so  that 
the  fat  is  easily  distinguished  from  the  milk.  The  necks 
of  the  bottles  have  scales  on  them,  and  as  the  cream  is 
forced  into  them,  one  notices  how  many  spaces  are  filled 
with  fat.  The  number  filled  indicates  the  per  cent  of  the 
fat  in  the  milk.  If  three  spaces  are  filled,  the  milk  tests 
three  per  cent,  and,  if  four  and  a  half  spaces  are  filled,  the 
milk  tests  four  and  a  half  per  cent.     See  page  358. 

Milk  Test. — If  we  say  milk  tests  five  per  cent  fat,  we 
mean  that  in  one  hundred  pounds  of  milk  there  are  five 
pounds  of  butter-fat.  One  hundred  pounds  of  six  per  cent 
milk  is  worth  twice  as  much  at  the  creamery  as  one  hundred 
pounds  of  three  per  cent  milk. 

At  every  creamery  this  test  is  used,  and  when  a  farmer 
brings  milk  to  the  creamery,  the  butter  maker  weighs  it, 
takes  a  sample  and  tests  it.  The  total  weight  multiplied 
by  the  test  of  the  milk  and  divided  by  one  hundred,  gives 
the  pounds  of  fat  and  affords  the  basis  on  which  the  milk 
is  paid  for.  Thus,  if  a  farmer  delivers  one  hundred  and 
seventy-five  pounds  of  milk,  and  it  tests  four  per  cent,  the 


216  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

problem  is  solved  as  follows:     .04  x  175  lbs.  =  7,  the  number 
of  pounds  of  fat. 

Cream  is  not  pure  butter-fat;  so  it  must  be  tested  also. 

Questions: 

1.  Why  was  some  device  for  testing  milk  badly  needed? 

2.  Who    invented    such    a   device? 

3.  Upon  what  principles  does  it  work? 

4.  If  you  have  seen  testing  done  at  the  creamery,  describe  it 
as   best   you   can. 

5.  What  is  meant  by  per  cent  of  fat  in  milk? 
Arithmetic: 

1.  A  hauls  230  lbs.  of  milk  to  the  creamery.  It  tests  3.5%  fat. 
How  many  pounds  of  butter-fat  does  it  contain?  .How  much  is  the 
butter-fat    worth    at    34c.    per   lb, 

2.  B  hauls  150  lbs.  of  milk  to  the  creamery.  It  tests  4.5%  fat. 
How  many  pounds  of  fat  does  it  contain?  How  much  is  the  fat  worth 
at  34c.  per  lb.? 

3.  C  delivers  75  lbs.  of  cream  to  the  creamery.  It  tests  24% 
fat.     How  many  pounds  fat  has  he?     What  is  it  worth  at  34c.  per  lb.? 

TESTING  COWS 

Culling. — Now  that  dairying  is  getting  to  be  such  an 
important  part  of  farming,  farmers  are  studying  how  they 
may  secure  greater  profits.  They  have  found  that,  if  they 
are  to  realize  satisfactory  returns  on  dairying,  they  must 
keep  only  cows  that  are  capable  of  producing  large  amounts 
of  milk  and  butter-fat.  They  have  found  also  that  the  only 
way  to  know  j  ust  what  each  cow  is  doing  is  to  weigh  the  milk. 
At  first  this  work  seemed  unnecessary,  but  now  nearly  every 
good  dairyman  tests  his  cows  and  finds  that  it  pays  him  to 
do  so,  because  it  takes  less  time  than  to  milk  one  or  two 
unprofitable  ones. 

Weighing  Milk. — This  is  very  simple,  if  one  has  a  spring 
balance  hung  in  the  barn  near  the  milk  can,  and  a  sheet 
of  paper  with  a  column  for  each  cow,  tacked  up  nearby  so 
that  the  results  can  be  jotted  down  as  the  milk  is  weighed. 
It  is  not  necessary  to  weigh  the  milk  every  day.  Weighing 
it  night  and  morning,  once  every  ten  days,  or  even  once  a 
month,  makes  it  possible  to  determine  quite  accurately  the 
amount  of  milk  a  cow  has  given  for  the  month. 

Advantages  of  Weighing  Milk  Every  Day. — There  are  a 
great  many  advantages,  though,  in  weighing  milk  every 
day.     By  so  doing  one  knows  accurately  how  much  milk  a 


DAIRYING 


217 


COW  has  given  during  the  month.  It  also  enables  one  to 
tell  at  once  whether  a  cow  gives  less  than  her  usual  flow  of 
milk.  If  a  cow  has  been  giving  fifteen  pounds  of  milk,  and 
suddenly  drops  to  thirteen  pounds,  one's  attention  is  called 
to  the  fact  at  once  and  the  cause  can  be  sought.  It  may  be 
found  that  the  cow  got  out  of  the  yard  and  that  the  dog 

was  set  on  her;  that  she 
was  left  out  in  the  cold 
too  long;  that  she  was 
turned  out  to  drink  when 
the  wind  was  so  cold  and 
the  water  so  nearly  froz- 
en, that  she  did  not  get 
the  amount  of  water  she 
needed,  or  that  a  win- 
dow or  door  was  left 
open  and  the  cold 
draught  chilled  her. 
Whatever  the  cause  of 
the  loss  in  milk  may  be, 
if  attention  is  called  to 
it,  the  cause  and  the 
remedy  may  both  be 
found. 

Sampling. — A  sample 
to  be  tested  for  the  per 
cent  of  fat  should  be  tak- 
en just  as  the  milk  is 
being  weighed.  Stir  the 
milk  in  the  pail  to  make 
sure  that  it  is  all  uniform; 
then  take  a  small  sample  in  a  bottle.  Each  sample  may  be 
tested  soon  after  being  taken,  or  a  simpler  way  is  to  take  sev- 
eral samples  from  the  same  cow  and  keep  them  in  one  bottle, 
and  test  all  together.  In  this  way  of  testing,  some  pre- 
servative must  be  added  to  keep  the  samples  from  spoiling. 
Testing. — Any  careful  boy,  twelve  or  more  years  old, 
can  test  milk,  if  he  has  a  tester  and  is  shown  how,  or,  if  the 
milk  is  weighed  at  ho«ie  and  samples  taken,  the  creamery 
man  will,  as  a  rule,  test  them  for  a  very  small  charge  or  for 


Figure  O-S.'-i-Scales    and    convenient  case  for 
weighing  and  sampling  milk. 


218 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


nothing.  At  one  place  the  farmers  pay  three  cents  a  sample 
for  testing.  If  one  has  a  sample  tested  each  month  from  a 
cow,  it  would  cost  but  thirty-six  cents  per  year,  and  this 
would  certainly  be  a  pa3nng  investment.  In  some  places 
the  farmers  form  a  cow-testing  association  and  hire  a  man 
to  test  all  the  cows.     He  comes  to  each  farm  once  a  month, 


4 

5>^ 

4 

m 

i 

m^ 

g 

tM 

H 

r    % 

1 

m 

1 

NHHHHHHIl 

Figure  94. — A  pure-bred  Holstein  cow.    She  gave  in  30  days  114.9  pounds  of  butter. 

and  weighs  and  tests  the  milk  from  each  cow  night  and 
morning,  then  goes  to  the  next  farmer.     This  is  a  very 
satisfactory  arrangement. 
Questions: 

1.  Why  is  it  wise  to  weigh  and  test  the  milk  from  each  cow? 

2.  What  are  the  advantages  in  weighing  the  milk  from  each  cow 
at  each  milking?  • 

3.  Tell  how  you  would  take  a  sample  of  milk  for  testing? 


DAIRYING 


219 


Arithmetic: 

1.  A  cow  gives  an  average  of  20  lbs.  of  milk  per  day  for  300 
days  each  year.     What  is  her  yearly  milk  production? 

2.  A  cow  gives  6,000  lbs.  of  milk  in  a  year,  testing  4%  fat.  How 
many  pounds  of  butter-fat  does  she  give?  How  much  is  the  butter-fat 
worth  at  30c.   per  pound? 

3.  A  cow  gives  6,000  lbs.  of  milk  in  a  year,  testing  5%  fat.  How- 
many  pounds  of  butter-fat  does  she  give?  How  much  is  the  butter- 
fat  worth  at  30c.  per  pound? 


^^^B^^H 

^^^^w]|HKjB 

5^ 

li^   f 

^^^■^H^^H 

■ku  \   L 

g 

H^H^^miHH 

figure  94a. — Outfit  for  making  the  Babcock  test.  *  From  left  to  right,  an  eight 
bottle  tester;  a  graduate  for  measuring  acid;  a  test  bottle;  compasses  for  measur- 
ing fat  in  neck  of  bottle;  a  pipette  for  measuring  milk,  and  a  sample  bottle. 

Exercises: 

1.  Weigh  the  milk  separately  of  two  or  more  cows  for  a  month. 
Test  it  at  home  or  at  school  or  have  it  tested  at  the  creamery.  Record 
how  much  milk  each  cow  gives  and  the  per  cent  of  butter-fat.  Compare 
the  records  of  different  cows. 

2.  Keep  a  record  of  the  feed  given  to  one  or  more  dairy  cows 
for  a  month.  What  is  it  worth  at  current  prices?  What  else  did  the 
cow  or  cows  cost?  Compare  costs  with  value  of  milk  and  products 
obtained. 

3.  Observe  how  careful  or  negligent  farmers  may  be  in  handling 
milk. 


CHAPTER  XVII 


SHEEP 

TYPES  AND  BREEDS 

Types. — Sheep  are  kept  for  mutton  and  wool  produc- 
tion. Some  breeds  are  specially  adapted  to  the  production 
of  wool  and  do  not  produce  the  best  quahty  of  mutton. 
Other  breeds  are  well  adapted  to  the  production  of  mutton, 
but  are  not  so  well  adapted  to  wool  production.  There  are 
two  common  ways  of  classifying  sheep,  one,  on  the  basis 
of  wool,  as  fine  wool,  medium  wool  and  long  wool.  The 
other,  as  fine  wool  and  mutton.     By  the  last  classification 

the  mutton  breeds  include 
the  medium  wool  and 
long  wool  breeds. 

Fine  wool  breeds  have 
been  bred  chiefly  for  wool 
production.  The  wool  on 
these  breeds  is  compara- 
tively short,  thick  and 
very  fine,  and  very  oily, 
so  that  a  great  deal  of 
dirt  sticks  to  it.  Their 
bodies  are  thin  and  irreg- 
ular and  their  skins  are 
very  much  wrinkled. 
These  breeds  are  smaller 
generally  than  the  mut- 
ton breeds.  They  have 
white  faces  and  the  males 
have  horns  and  the  ewes 
are  hornless.  American  and  Delaine  Merinos  are  the  most 
important  breeds  in  this  class.  They  were  brought  to 
America  from  Spain  more  than  a  hundred  years  ago.  They 
have  been  generally  recognized  as  American  breeds. 
The  American  Merino  is  very  much  wrinkled.  The  Delaine 
Merino  is  wrinkled,  but  not  so  much  as  the  former.     Ram- 


Figure  95. — A  Rambouillet,  a  fine  wool  type. 


SHEEP 


221 


bouillet,  the  other  fine  wool  breed,  originated  in  France. 
It  is  larger  than  the  Merino,  has  a  little  better  mutton 
carcass,  is  generally  wrinkled  very  little  and  only  at  the  neck. 
Medium  wool  breeds  have  been  bred  chiefly  for  mutton, 
hence  have  very  compact  bodies,  well  covered  with  flesh. 
They  produce  good  fleeces,  but  not  as  heavy  or  as  fine  as 
the  fine  wool  breeds.     The  breeds  of  sheep  in  this  class  are 


Figure  96. — A  Shropshire,  a  medium  wool  type. 

by  far  the  most  common  in  America.  Five  of  the  important 
breeds  in  this  class  are  Shropshire,  Southdown,  Oxford, 
Hampshire  arid  Suffolk.  These  are  all  English  breeds,  with 
good  carcasses.  They  always  have  brown  or  black  faces 
and  legs  and  no  horns.  Other  breeds  in  this  class  are  Cheviot 
and  Dorset.  These  breeds  have  white  faces,  the  Dorset 
has  horns — both  males  and  females.  The  Dorset  is  an 
English  breed.     The  Cheviot  comes  from  Scotland. 

Coarse  wool  breeds  have  also  been  bred  chiefly  for  mut- 
ton. They  are  large  breeds  of  sheep,  taller  than  the  Shrop- 
shire, and  with  much  longer,  coarser  wool.    These  breeds 


222  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

have  good  mutton  carcasses  and  no  horns.  The  Leicester, 
Cotswold  and  Lincoln  are  English  breeds  with  white  faces. 
The  Blackfaced  Highland  is  a  Scotch  breed. 


Figure  97. — A  Cotswold,  a  coarse  wool  type. 

Questions: 

1.  Tell  how  breeds  of  sheep  are  classified  as  to  purposes  for 
which  they  are  kept?     As  to   the  kind  of  wool? 

2.  What  breed  of  sheep  is  most  common  in  your  neighborhood? 
Describe  this  breed  and  show  how  it  differs  from  other  breeds. 

3.  Name  the  breeds  of  sheep  that  have  horns?  In  which  breed 
do  both  males  and  females  have  horns? 

Arithmetic: 

1.  What  is  the  value  of  a  fleece  of  wool  weighing  73^  lbs.,  when 
wool  is  23c.  per  pound? 

2.  What  is  the  value  of  17  lambs  weighing  84  lbs.  each,  at  7c.  per 
pound? 

3.  If  a  farmer  with  50  ewes  can  get  7}4  Ihs.  of  wool  from  each, 
and  can  raise  40  84-lb.  lambs,  what  will  be  his  total  income  from  his 
sheep,  if  he  sells  the  wool  at  23c.  per  lb.  and  the  lambs  at  7c.  per  lb.? 


SHEEP  223 

CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT 

Care  and  management  have  quite  as  much  to  do  with 
successful  sheep  husbandry  as  with  the  successful  man- 
agement of  any  kind  of  live  stock.  While  sheep  may  be 
able  to  live  with  less  attention  and  shelter  than  are  required 
by  other  classes  of  live  stock,  they  will  not  prove  profitable 
unless  made  comfortable  and  given  attention  when  needed. 

During  the  winter  the  flock  on  the  average  farm  con- 
sists chiefly  of  ewes  kept  over  winter  with  the  expectation 
that  they  will  have  lambs  in  the  spring. 

Winter  Care  of  Breeding  Ewes. — Ewes  kept  on  good 
pasture  during  the  summer  and  fall,  are  usually  in  good 
flesh  by  the  time  they  are  put  in  winter  quarters.  Dur- 
ing the  winter  they  need  food  enough  to  maintain  their 
bodies,  to  provide  for  the  growth  of  wool  and  to  supply 
the  energy  needed  for  what  little  exercise  they  take  about 
the  sheds  and  yards.  They  do  not  need  to  be  fed  as  heavily 
in  proportion  to  their  weight  as  cows  that  are  giving  milk, 
horses  that  are  working,  or  cattle,  sheep  or  hogs  that  are 
being  fattened. 

It  is  unwise  to  feed  ewes  any  ration  that  will  tend  to  fat- 
ten them.  They  should  be  fed  succulent  and  muscle-form- 
ing foods,  as  clover  hay,  corn  fodder,  roots;  and,  if  fed  any 
grain,  it  should  be  a  kind  rich  in  protein,  as  bran,  oats,  etc. 

To  feed  sheep  properly  is  as  much  of  a  problem  as  to 
feed  other  kinds  of  stock.  If  sheep  are  not  well  nourished, 
they  will  lose  some  of  their  wool,  and  be  weak  and  poor  in 
the  spring.  If  breeding  ewes  are  fed  too  much,  the  lambs 
are  likely  to  come  weak  in  the  spring;  besides,  there  is  an 
unnecessary  waste  of  feed. 

Require  Little  Labor. — Most  of  our  farms  need  more 
stock  than  is  at  present  kept  on  them.  Farm  labor  is  so 
scarce  that  it  seems  unwise,  on  the  average  farm,  to  increase 
the  number  of  cows  kept  beyond  what  can  be  cared  for, 
if  necessary  by  the  family.  Sheep  require  comparatively 
little  labor,  except  for  a  short  time  during  the  lambing 
season.  Five  to  seven  ewes  will  bring  in  about  as  much 
income  in  a  year  as  a  cow,  and  less  labor  is  required  to  care 
for  them.     In  view  of  these  facts,  the  live  stock  of  the  farm 


224 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


may  often  be  more  easily  and  more  profitably  increased  by 
putting  on  a  flock  of  from  twenty  to  seventy  ewes  than  by 
adding  from  three  to  ten  cows  to  the  herd. 

Shelter. — Sheep  are  so  well  protected  by  their  wool  that 
they  need  very  little  or  no  protection  from  the  cold.  They 
should,  however,  be  kept  dry  and  have  a  place,  that  is  free 
from  draughts,  in  which  to  lie  down.     A  single  board  or 


Figure  98. — Shearing  sheep  by  machinery. 

strav,^  shed,  closed  tight  on  three  sides,  but  with  the  other 
side  partly  open  so  that  the  sheep  may  run  out  and  in  at 
will,  is  a  very  satisfactory  place  in  which  to  keep  sheep. 
If  Iambs  come  during  the  cold  weather,  warm  quarters  must 
be  provided. 

Fencing  for  Sheep. — One  of  the  objectionable  features 
of  keeping  sheep  on  the  average  farm  is  the  difficulty  of 
fencing  them  in.  A  fence  that  can  be  built  for  20  cents  to 
25  cents  per  rod  is  satisfactory  for  cattle.  A  much  closer 
fence,  as  a  woven  wire  fence  or  a  narrow  ribbon  of  woven 
wire  with  one  or  more  barbed  wires  above,  is  needed  for 
sheep.     Such  a  fence  costs  45  to  60  cents  per  rod.     As  farms 


SHEEP  225 

are  more  intensively  worked,  however,  more  and  better 
fences  will  be  used,  and  then  there  will  be  no  difficulty  in 
keeping  sheep. 

Sheep  for  Fattening. — A  number  of  farmers,  who  have  not 
the  necessary  fencing  so  they  can  raise  sheep  to  advantage, 
have  gotten  some  of  the  benefits  of  having  sheep  on  their 
farms  by  buying  at  about  harvest  time  a  carload  of  lambs, 
or  as  many  as  they  can  keep  to  advantage,  and  allowing 
them  to  graze  over  their  stubble  and  cornfields  during  the 
fall.  Such  sheep  are  in  fine  condition  to  fatten  during  the 
winter  on  bundle  corn  or  other  cheap  feed.  Farmers  may 
thus  produce  several  pounds  of  mutton  on  each  acre  of  land, 
after  it  has  produced  a  crop;  make  their  land  cleaner  and 
richer;  and  feed  on  the  farm,  at  a  profit,  products  otherwise 
of  little  or  no  value. 
Questions: 

1.  What  winter  care  do  breeding  ewes  require? 

2.  Compare  the  shelter  needed  for  sheep  with  the  shelter  needed 
for  dairy  cows. 

3.  What  can  you  say  about  fencing  for  sheep? 

4.  Why  do  sheep  require  less  labor  than  other  stock? 
Arithmetic: 

1.  A  farmer  buys  50  sheep  at  $4.50  each.  How  much  do  they 
cost    him? 

2.  When  shorn,  the  50  sheep  average  73^  lbs.  of  wool  each.  How 
many  pounds  of  wool  will  the  farmer  have?  How  much  is  it  worth  at 
24c.  per  pound?     How  much  is  the  wool  worth  per  sheep? 

3.  From  the  50  sheep  the  farmer  raises  45  lambs  worth  $4.00  each. 
How  much  are  the  lambs  worth?  What  is  the  average  income  for  lambs 
from  each  of  the  50  sheep? 

FEEDING 
Cheaply  Raised. — Sheep  can  eat  and  thrive  on  a  diet 
constituted  principally  of  roughage.  In  this  respect  they 
are  like  cattle;  but  very  different  from  hogs  whose  ration 
must  be  largely  grain,  because  they  have  comparatively 
small  stomachs.  It  is  well  to  feed  at  least  some  of  the 
grain  produced  on  a  farm  for  the  sake  of  preserving  its 
fertility;  but  there  is  alwaj^s  more  or  less  roughage,  as 
straw,  cornstalks,  hay,  weeds  and  scattered  grain.  This 
coarse  stuff  is  not  suitable  for  dairy  cows,  although  beef 
cattle  can  use  such  feed;  but  sheep  are  more  Ukely  to  return 
a  profit  on  such  feed  than  beef  cattle. 

15— 


226 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


Sheep  produce  two  crops  a  year,  a  crop  of  wool  and  a 
crop  of  lambs.  Often  the  wool  will  pay  for  a  year's  feed. 
The  lambs  will  then  be  clear,  and  a  lamb  is  ready  for  market 
in  from  six  months  to  a  year,  while  a  calf  is  not  profitable 
for   two   or   three   years. 

Rations  for  Breeding  Ewes. — Some  sheep  feeding  work 
done  by  the  Animal  Husbandry  Division  of  the  Minnesota 


^  ^j-^ 


Figure  99. — A  good  flock  of  breeding  ewes  gleaning  in  a  stubble  field.     They  will 
pick  up  all  heads  of  scattered  grain,  as  well  as  destroy  many  troublesome  weeds. 

Experiment  Station,  shows  that  with  the  common  and  cheap 
farm  feeds,  breeding  ewes  may  be  wintered  with  excellent 
results  and  very  cheaply. 

The  rations  given  below  show  the  amount  of  the  dif- 
ferent feeds  per  day  per  100  lbs.  live  weight  of  sheep. 

Ration  No.  I 
3.7  lbs.  of  fodder  com,  in  which  there  were  a  few  nubbins  of  com. 

Ration  No.  n 
3.7  lbs.  of  second  crop  clover  hay. 

Ration  No.  HI 
1.5  lbs.  of  second  crop  clover  hay,  .1  lb.  of  com  fodder,  and  .3 
lb.  of  oats  and  corn,  equal  parts. 


SHEEP  227 

Ration  No.  IV 

1.8  lbs.  of  second  crop  clover  hay,  1.5  lbs.  of  roots,  and  .3  lb.  of 
shelled  corn. 

Ration  No.  V 

2.6  lbs.  of  fodder  corn,  1.5  lbs.  of  roots,  and  .3  lb.  of  oats  and  shelled 
corn,  equal  parts. 

Ration  No.  VI 

2  lbs.  of  oat  straw,  1.6  lbs.  of  roots,  .6  lb.  of  bran  and  oats,  equal 
parts. 

How  to  Feed  Above  Rations. — A  glance  at  the  above 
rations  gives  one  an  idea  that  it  would  be  impractical  to 
weigh  out  feed  so  carefully  to  each  sheep;  which  conclusion 
of  course,  is  true.  To  feed  any  of  the  above  rations,  one 
would  simply  need  to  know  the  number  of  ewes  to  be  fed, 
and  their  approximate  weight.  (The  average  ewe  will  weigh 
between  125  and  150  lbs.)  If  one  had  40  ewes  weighing  140 
lbs.  each,  he  would  have  5,600  lbs.  of  sheep.  If  each  100 
lbs.  of  sheep  required  3.7  lbs.  of  clover  hay,  his  flock  would 
require  56x3.7  lbs.  or  207.2  lbs.  of  clover  hay  per  day;  and 
about  one  half  of  this  amount  would  be  scattered  in  the 
feeding  racks  each  morning,  the  balance  in  the  evening. 

If  one  will  weigh  a  few  forkfuls  of  hay  occasionally, 
he  can  tell  very  closely,  without  weighing  every  time  he 
feeds,  about  how  much  hay  is  fed  each  time. 

If  one  is  to  feed  a  mixture  of  corn  and  oats,  equal  parts, 
he  would  simply  mix  together  one  or  more  hundred  pounds 
of  each;  then,  by  weighing  a  few  measurefuls  of  the  mixture, 
he  can  tell  approximately  the  right  amount  of  grain  to  feed 
to  his  flock  without  weighing  the  grain  each  time  he  feeds. 
Questions: 

1.  Why  do  breeding  ewes  require  food  diu-ing  the  winter? 

2.  What  are  the  results  of  overfeeding  breeding  ewes?  Of  un- 
derfeeding? 

3.  How  would  you  proceed  to  feed  a  flock  of  ewes  approximately 
the  right  amount  of  feed? 

Arithmetic: 

1.  How  much  will  it  cost  to  feed  a  140-lb.  ewe  200  days, 
on  ration  No.  I,  if  fodder  com  is  worth  $5.00  per  ton? 

2.  How  much  will  it  cost  to  feed  a  i40-lb.  ewe  200  days  on  ration 
No.  IV,  if  clover  hay  is  worth  $5.00  per  ton,  roots  $2.00  per  ton,  and 
com  and  oats  $20.00  per  ton? 

3.  How  much  will  it  cost  to  feed  a  140-lb.  ewe  200  days,  on  ration 
No.  VI,  if  straw  is  worth  nothing,  roots  are  worth  $2.00  per  ton,  and 
oats  and  bran  are  worth  $24.00  per  ton? 


228  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Exercises: 

1 .  List  the  different  breeds  of  sheep  raised  in  the  community. 
Stat«,  if  you  can  find  out,  for  what  particular  purpose  each  breed  is 
raised  and  why  it  is  preferred. 

2.  Ascertain  how  much  wool  was  shipped  from  your  station 
last  season.     What  was  it  worth?     How  much  does  your  state  produce? 

3.  Name  all  the  profitable  advantages  of  sheep  and  sheep  raising 
that  you  can.     Compare  points  with  other  animals. 

4.  Describe  the  various  ways  in  which  sheep  and  their  products 
are  of  use  to  man. 

5.  At  present  prices  which  would  be  more  profitable,  all  things 
considered,  to  sell  the  wethers  for  mutton  or  to  keeo  them  for  the  wool 
they  produce? 


CHAPTER  XVIII 


SWINE 

TYPFJS  AND  BREEDS 

T3rpes. — Swine  are  bred  entirely  for  pork,  consequently 
there  is  not  so  much  difference  in  breeds  of  hogs  as  in  breeds 
of  other  stock.  There  are  two  general  types  of  hogs,  namely, 
lard  hogs  and  bacon  hogs. 

Lard  hogs  are  by  far  the  most  common  in  America. 
They  have  short  legs,  comparatively  short  broad  backs 
and  heavy  hams  and  shoulders.  They  have  been  bred  and 
fed  to  mature  early  and  fatten  easily.  The  most  common 
breeds  of  lard  hogs  are  Poland  China,  Berkshire,  Duroc- 

Jersey,  Chester 
White  and  Small 
Yorkshire.  Other 
breeds  in  this  class 
are  Hampshire, 
Essex  and  Suffolk. 
Poland  China  is  an 
American  breed, 
black  in  color  with 
six  white  points, 
a  white  spot  in 
the  face,  white  on 
the  end  of  the  tail 
and  four  white 
feet.  The  ears  droop.  Berkshires  are  an  EngHsh  breed. 
They  are  black  and  have  the  six  white  points  the  same 
as  the  Poland  China.  Their  ears  stand  erect  or  point 
outward.  They  are  not  quite  so  wide  and  have  a  Uttle 
longer  legs  than  Poland  Chinas.  Duroc  -  Jerseys  were 
developed  in  the  United  States.  They  are  very  much  like 
the  Poland  China  in  every  way  except  that  they  are  red 
in  color.  Chester  White  is  another  United  States 
breed.  They  are  larger  than  the  Poland  Chinas.  In 
form  they  are  quite  Uke  the  Poland  Chinas,  but  are  white 


-■MiiTI 


Figure  100. — Berkshire  hog,  a  lard  type. 


230  ELEMENTii  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

in  color.  Small  Yorkshires  originated  in  England.  This 
is  one  of  the  smallest  breeds  of  hogs.  They  are  white  in 
color  and  have  very  short  heads  with  a  face  very  much 
dished,  that  is,  the  nose  has  the  appearance  of  being  broken 
and  turned  up.  The  ears  stand  erect.  The  Hampshire  is 
an  American  breed,  black  with  a  white  belt  about  the  body. 
Sometimes  it  is  classed  as  an  intermediate  breed.  Essex  is 
a  small  black  EngUsh  breed. 

Intermediate  Breeds. — There  are  three  breeds  that  can 
hardly  be  classed  as  either  lard  or  bacon  in  type.  They 
are  partly  both.     They  are  all  white,  and  medium  in  size. 


Figure  101. — Prize  Yorkshire  Sow,  a  bacon  type. 

The  Cheshire  is  a  United  States  breed,  with  ears  erect.  The 
Victoria  is  a  United  States  breed,  with  ears  drooping. 
The  Middle  Yorkshire  is  an  English  breed,  with  ears  erect 
and  face  slightly  dished. 

Bacon  breeds  are  large,  long  hogs,  with  very  deep  bodies, 
long  legs  and  long  heads.  They  are  not  so  broad  as  the  lard 
hogs  and  the  hams  and  shoulders  are  lighter.  These  breeds 
have  a  tendency  to  mix  more  lean  with  the  fat  than  the 
lard  hogs.  Bacon  with  nice  strips  of  lean  running  through 
it  is  to  be  desired.  There  are  but  two  breeds  in  this  group, 
the  Yorkshire  and  the  Tam worth.  These  are  both  EngHsh 
breeds.  The  Yorkshire  is  white,  with  dished  face  and  erect 
ears.  The  Tamworth  is  red,  with  a  very  long  nose  and 
ears  erect. 


SWINE  231 

Questions: 

1.  What  are  the  chief  differences  between  bacon  and  lard  hogs? 

2.  Describe  four  important  breeds  of  lard  hogs. 

3.  What  breed  is  most  commonly  raised  in  your  community? 
Describe  this  breed  fully? 

Arithmetic: 

1.  If  a  farmer  raises  60  hogs  that  weigh  225  lbs.  each,  and  sella 
them  at  7Hc.  per  lb.,  how  much  money  will  he  get? 

2.  A  farmer  turns  8  50-1  b.  pigs  into  an  acre  of  clover  pasture 
and  leaves  them  70  days.  In  the  meantime  he  feeds  them  1,000  lbs. 
of  shorts,  worth  $25  per  ton.     At  the  end  of  the  period  each  pig  weighs 

•100  lbs.  How  many  pounds  did  the  pigs  gain?  How  much  is  the 
amount  they  gained  worth  at  73^c.  per  pound?  How  much  did  the 
farmer  make,   after   paying   for   the   shorts? 

CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT 

THE  SWINE  INDUSTRY 

Profitable  Meat  Production. — Hogs  are  kept  on  nearly 
every  farm,  but  only  a  small  proportion  of  farmers  raise 
enough  hogs  to  make  pork  production  an  important  factor 
in  the  income  of  the  farm.  Pork  production  is,  however, 
a  very  important  enterprise  on  many  farms,  and  has  in  many 
cases  proved  profitable;  in  fact  more  profitable  than  any 
other    kind    of    meat    production. 

Advantage  of  Hog  Raising. — Some  advantages  of  pork 
production  over  that  of  other  kinds  of  meat  are: 

(a)  A  brood  sow  may  produce  frOm  four  to  twenty 
pigs  in  a  year.  On  this  account  the  cost  of  a  pig  at  birth 
is  less  in  proportion  than  the  cost  of  a  calf  or  a  lamb. 

(b)  The  fact  that  hogs  have  large  Utters,  reach  maturity 
quickly  and  do  not  require  expensive  shelter,  enables  one  to 
get  started  in  raising  hogs  more  quickly  and  with  less  expense 
than  is  required  to  start  with  other  kinds  of  live  stock. 

(c)  Less  labor  is  required  to  care  for  hogs  than  to  care 
for  enough  cattle  to  bring  in  the  same  amount  of  money. 

(d)  They  consume  and  convert  into  valuable  products 
the  wastes  and  slops  of  the  farm. 

Disadvantages  of  Hog  Raising. — The  main  disadvan- 
tages of  hog  raising  are: 

(a)  Hogs  are  not  able  to  use  the  coarse  roughage, 
as  com  stover  and  straw,  that  is  usually  found  on  the  farm; 
hence  cannot  convert  these  products  into  salable  form  as 
can   sheep   and    cattle. 


232  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

(b)  Their  chief  feed  must  be  grain,  at  least  for  fatten- 
ing, and  grain  feed  is  more  expensive  than  roughage. 

(c)  They  are  more  hkely  to  be  taken  off  in  large  num- 
bers by  disease  than  are  the  other  classes  of  live  stock. 

Possibilities. — Hogs  have  probably  been  the  means  of 
paying  off  more  mortgages  than  has  any  other  class  of  stock. 
\  young  man  wishing  to  make  a  start  on  the  farm  can  well 
afford  to  give  careful  attention  to  hogs. 


Figure   102 — A  grand  ehampioa  Poland  China,  courtesy  of 
Anderson  Brothers,  West  Liberty,  Iowa. 

A  good  brood  sow  should  have  from  six  to  ten  pigs  at 
a  litter,  and,  if  desired,  may  have  two  litters  a  year.  Pigs, 
when  eight  months  old,  should  weigh  200  lbs.,  or  more.  If 
a  sow  produces  fourteen  pigs  in  a  year,  and  each  pig  when 
eight  months  old  weighs  200  lbs.,  she  would  produce  2,800 
pounds  of  pork  in  a  year,  which  at  8c.  per  pound  would  be 
worth  $224. 

Hog  Cholera. — The  most  dangerous  disease  of  hogs  is 
hog  cholera,  and  it  has  caused  the  loss  of  millions  of  dollars' 
worth  of  hogs  in  the  United  States.  Veterinarians  have 
now  discovered  a  method  by  which  it  is  possible  to  vaccinate 
hogs  and  prevent  their  having  cholera.  They  vaccinate 
in  much  the  same  manner  as  people  are  vaccinated  to  make 
them  immune  to  small-pox.  Vaccination  is  quite  expensive 
and  proper  facilities  are  not  always  available;  so  it  is  well  to 
take  every  precaution  to  prevent  the  disease. 

Hog  cholera  is  a  contagious  disease.  That  is,  hogs  are 
very  likely  to  take  the  disease  if  they  come  in  contact  with 


SWINE  233 

other  hogs  that  are  infected  with  it.  The  germs  may  be 
carried  from  one  pen  to  another,  or  from  one  farm  to  an- 
other, on  one's  clothes,  by  dogs,  by  running  water  or  by  any 
other  method  by  which  particles  of  dust  or  disease  germs 
might  be  carried  about. 

Preventive  Measures. — If  hogs  are  kept  in  clean,  health- 
ful quarters,  given  plenty  of  exercise,  and  fed,  except  when 
fattening,  enough  muscle-forming  food,  as  clover  pasture, 
clover  hay,  milk,  shorts,  etc.,  to  keep  them  in  good,  vigor- 
ous condition,  they  will  be  better  able  to  resist  the  disease 
than  if  they  are  kept  in  less  thrifty  condition.  If  cholera 
breaks  out  in  the  community,  one  should  use  every  pre- 
caution to  prevent  the  germs  from  being  brought  on  the 
farm;  and,  if  it  gets  very  close,  it  is  well  to  dispose  of  all 
the  hogs  that  are  well  and  fit  to  sell.  Chances  of  loss  may 
be  greatly  reduced  by  separating  the  hogs. 
Questions: 

1.  What  are  some  of  the  advantages  of  pork  production  over 
the  production  of  other  classes  of  meat?  What  are  some  of  the  dis- 
advantages? 

2.  What  can  you  say  of  the  possibilities  of  pork  production? 

3.  Tell  all  you  can  about  hog  cholera. 
Arithmetic: 

1.  What  is  the  value  of  a  hog  weighing  225  lbs.  at  53^c.  per  pound? 

2.  A  sow  has  7  pigs  in  a  litter.  When  8  months  old  the  pigs  weigh 
200  lbs.  each.  What  is  the  weight  of  all?  How  much  are  they  worth 
at  53^c.  per  pound? 

3.  If  a  bushel  of  com  will  produce  10  lbs.  of  pork,  how  much 
will  the  feed  for  the  production  of  a  pound  of  pork  cost,  if  com  is  worth 
35c.  per  bushel? 

THE  BROOD  SOW  AND  PIGS 

The  brood  sow  and  her  care  and  feed  determine  the 
cost  of  pigs  at  birth.  In  the  first  place  a  sow  of  good  type, 
and  of  the  breed  desired,  should  be  selected.  If  several 
fitters  of  pigs  are  raised,  it  is  well  to  have  some  method  of 
marking  the  young  pigs,  so  that  when  they  are  grown  one 
can  tell  from  which  fitter  they  came.  It  is  desirable  to  have 
brood  sows  that  will  have  large  litters  of  pigs;  and  if  one 
selects  brood  sows  from  a  large  litter  one  is  more  likely  to 
get  a  good  number  of  pigs  from  each  sow  than  if  sows  were 
selected  from  a  bunch  of  hogs  without  regard  to  whether 
they  came  from  large  litters  or  not. 


234 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


If  one  does  not  mark  the  pigs  at  birth,  young  sows  may- 
be selected  from  small  litters,  because  the  sows  with  small 
litters  feed  their  pigs  a  little  better,  and  as  a  consequence 
the  pigs  are  usually  a  little  fatter  and  better  looking  than 
the  pigs  from  large  litters. 

Care  of  the  Brood  Sows. — The  brood  sow  should  have 
plenty  of  succulent  and  muscle-forming  feed,  but  should 


Figure  103 — A  champion  Chester  White  Sow. 


not  be  overfed.  She  should  have  at  all  times  plenty  of 
exercise.  It  is  a  mistake  to  allow  brood  sows  to  run  during 
the  fall  with  the  hogs  that  are  being  fattened.  It  is  a  waste 
of  feed,  and  the  sows  are  injured  if  allowed  to  get  too  fat. 
During  the  fall  the  brood  sows  should  have  the  run  of  a 
good  pasture,  with  only  enough  grain  to  keep  them  in  good 
thrifty  condition. 

Shelter. — If  only  one  litter  of  pigs  is  to  be  raised  from 
each  sow  each  year,  it  is  well  to  have  them  come  as  early 
in  the  spring  as  the  weather  is  warm.  Then  no  expensive 
shelter  is  needed.  A  small  cot  (movable  house)  well  banked, 
or  a  straw  shed,  is  ample  for  the  sow  during  the  winter 
and  in  summer  all  that  is  needed  is  shelter  to  keep  the  pigs 
dry  and  to  protect  them  from  the  sun.  If  cots  are  used 
they  may  be  moved  to  the  pasture  for  summer  shelter. 
Hogs  need  shade  in  summer. 


BWlNtJ 


235 


If  one  is  going  to  raise  two  litters  of  pigs  from  a  brood 
sow  in  a  year,  good  warm  quarters  must  be  provided. 
These  quarters  need  not  be  expensive,  but  they  should  be 

convenient     and 

comfortable. 

Requirements 
for  Pigs. —  The 
first  requirement 
of  young  pigs  is 
that  they  have  a 
clean,  dry,  com- 
fortable bed  in 
which  to  arrive". 
As  the  mother  is 
naturally  in  a 
feverish  condition 
at  this  time,  she 
may  be  somewhat 
careless  and  lie  on 
the  little  pigs.  To 
prevent  this,  a 
shelf  ten  or  twelve  inches  wide  and  eight  or  ten  inches 
from  the  floor  should  be  built  around  the  pen,  so  as  to 
make  room  for  the  pigs  to  get  out  of  the  way  of  their 
mother.  This  is  a  very  simple  precaution,  and  may  save  a 
number  of  pigs. 

A  Creep. — To  feed  the  small  pigs  so  that  the  sow  cannot 
bother  them,  have  a  small  yard  or  pen  fenced  off  in  the  place 
in  which  the  sow  is  kept,  with  the  fence  raised  high  enough 
from  the  ground  so  that  the  little  pigs  can  pass  back  and 
forth  easily,  but  low  enough  to  keep  out  the  old  sow.  In 
this  place  plenty  of  trough  room  should  be  provided,  so 
that  every  pig  has  a  chance  to  eat.  Otherwise,  the  larger, 
stronger  pigs  will  get  most  of  the  feed  and  the  smaller 
ones  will  not  get  enough. 

Weaning  Pigs. — If  but  one  Htter  of  pigs  is  raised  per 
year,  they  may  be  allowed  to  run  with  their  mother  until 
from  twelve  to  sixteen  weeks  old,  or  even  longer,  until 
the  sow  begins  to  wean  the  pigs  herself.  If  the  young  pigs 
are  given  a  chance  to  learn  to  eat  as  suggested  above,  they 


Figure  104. — Hog  cot,  a  cheap  and  portable  shelter. 


23  )  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

may  be  weaned  with  very  little  difficulty  at  any  time  after 
they  are  six  weeks  old.  If  the  sow  is  doing  well,  it  is  usually 
better  to  leave  the  pigs  with  her  until  they  are  about  twelve 
weeks  old. 

Comfort. — In  fattening  any  kind  of  stock,  comfort  is  an 
important  factor,  and  one  who  overlooks  it  is  a  loser  there- 
by. If  hogs  are  fed  in  the  field,  a  good  soft  and  dry  bed 
should  be  provided  for  them  or  they  will  not  do  their  best, 
and  they  should  always  have  a  supply  of  fresh  water.  The 
same  is  true  if  they  are  kept  in  the  yard.  Some  feeders 
claim,  and  with  good  reason  too,  that  an  armful  of  straw 
may  often  be  as  valuable  to  a  bunch  of  hogs  as  a  bushel 
of  corn. 

Fencing  is  the  most  expensive  part  of  furnishing  pas- 
ture for  hogs,  but  as  a  rule  it  is  cheaper  than  the  labor  of 
caring  for  and  carrying  feed  to  the  hogs  would  be.  The 
cost  of  fencing  may  be  reduced  by  having  comparatively 
large,  well-shaped  fields,  and  by  planning  for  them  a  rota- 
tion that  will  furnish  the  maximum  amount  of  feed.  A 
four-year  rotation,  of  (1)  grain,  (2)  clover,  (3)  and  (4) 
corn,  on  four  fenced  fields  of  uniform  size,  is  very  satis- 
factory. One  of  the  four  fields  would  be  in  grain,  one  in 
clover  and  two  in  corn,  each  year;  the  clover  and  the  two 
corn  crops  to  be  fed  off  by  the  hogs. 

Arrangement  of  Fields. — Four  fields  adjoining  the  farm- 
stead, each  }/2  acre  to  one  acre  in  size,  for  each  brood  sow 
kept  on  the  farm,  make  it  possible  to  produce  both  summer 
and  fall  feed  for  hogs  very  cheaply.  Each  year  one  field 
would  be  sown  to  grain  and  red  clover  seed,  and  another 
field  would  be  in  pasture,  and  the  other  two  in  corn.  Such 
rotation  once  established  would  supply  abundance  of  cheap 
feed  with  the  least  labor. 
Questions: 

1.  What  are  some  of  the  points  worth  considering  in  the  selection 
of  a  brood  sow? 

2.  What  can  you  say  concerning  the  care  and  shelter  of  brood 
sows? 

3.  How  may  young  pigs  be  fed  so  they  will  not  be  bothered  by 
their  mother? 

4.  What  is  the  best  kind  of  summer  feed  for  hogs,  and  how 
supplied? 

5.  In  what  way  can  the  cost  of  fencing  for  hogs  be  reduced? 


SWINE 


237 


Arithmetic: 

1.  If  H  acre  of  clover  T^asture  is  required  for  a  sow  and  eight 
pigs,  how  many  acres  are  required  for  six  sows  with  litters? 

2.  How  many  acres  of  land  in  a  field  20  rods  by  24  rods  in  size? 
How  many  rods  of  fencing  are  required  to  enclose  it?  How  many  rods 
of  fencing  per  acre?  What  would  the  fencing  cost  per  acre  at  SOc.  per 
rod  of  fencing? 

3.  If  it  costs  $15.00  per  acre  to  fence  a  field,  what  is  the  annual 
cost  of  the  fence,  if  it  lasts  ten  years  and  interest  is  charged  at  the 
rate  of  4%?     (Ans.:  1-10  of  $15.00  and  interest  on  $15.00.) 

FEEDING 

FATTENING  HOGS  ECONOMICALLY 

To  fatten  hogs  it  is  simply  necessary  to  supply  them  with 
plenty  of  food,  as  they  usually  have  a  good  appetite  and  are 


Figure  105. — Hogs  helping  themselves  to  the  corn  crop. 

not  easily  injured  by  overfeeding.  It  is  wise,  however,  to 
change  their  feed  to  another  gradually,  that  is,  where  they 
are  being  fed  all  they  will  take. 

The  majority  of  hogs  are  fattened  in  the  fall  and  early 
winter;  and  on  that  account  we  will  suggest  some  of  the 
better  methods  practiced  in  fall  fattening. 

Labor. — A  very  common  practice  followed  in  fattening 
hogs  is  to  shut  them  up  in  a  small  yard  and  feed  them 
generously.  This  practice,  however,  is  no  longer  regarded 
as  desirable.     The  animals  are  not  kept  in  the  most  rugged 


238  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

condition  by  being  confined  too  closely;  they  are  more 
likely  to  become  diseased,  and  a  great  deal  of  labor  is  neces- 
sary to  feed  and  care  for  them  when  closely  confined.  Labor 
is  one  of  the  very  important  items  in  the  cost  of  pork  pro- 
duction, and  every  effort  should  be  made  to  reduce  the 
necessary  labor  to  the  minimum. 

Early  Fall  Feed. — During  the  early  part  of  the  fattening 
season  considerable  green  and  succulent  feed  can  be  fed  to 
advantage.  This  feed  is  very  easily  supplied  by  raising  a 
patch  of  pumpkins  near  the  hog  pasture,  where  the  pump- 
kins can  be  easily  thrown  over  the  fence  to  the  hogs.  Plenty 
of  good  pasture  is  also  desirable  at  this  time,  and  it  may  be 
supphed  in  any  way  most  convenient. 

Field  Peas. — In  the  first  part  of  the  fattening  period 
the  pigs  will  make  considerable  growth;  so  some  muscle- 
forming  feed  is  desirable  as  a  part  of  the  ration,  rather  than 
an  exclusive  corn  diet.  A  small  field  of  field  peas,  so  situ- 
ated that  they  may  be  harvested  by  the  hogs  when  ripe  by 
turning  the  hogs  into  the  field,  gives  the  hogs  an  excellent 
start  at  slight  expenditure  of  labor.  The  peas  are  sown 
very  early  in  the  spring,  at  the  rate  of  three  bushels  of  seed 
per  acre,  and  nothing  more  is  done  to  them  until  the  hogs 
are  turned  in. 

Com. — After  the  peas  have  been  fed  off,  or  as  soon  as 
the  corn  is  ripe,  if  one  has  no  peas,  the  hogs  may  be  turned 
into  a  portion  of  the  cornfield  and  allowed  to  help  them- 
selves. If  some  green  feed  is  provided  by  sowing  rye  or 
rape  in  the  corn,  at  the  time  it  was  cultivated  last,  a  large 
amount  of  green  feed  will  be  supplied  at  very  small  cost, 
and  wiU  be  relished  by  the  hogs  along  with  the  com. 

It  costs  only  about  half  as  much  to  grow  a  crop  of  com 
up  to  the  time  it  is  ripe,  as  to  raise,  cut,  husk  and  feed  it. 
In  other  words,  it  costs  about  $5.00  per  acre  to  cut,  shock 
and  husk  one  acre  of  corn,  and  by  allowing  the  hogs  to  har- 
vest the  crop  themselves  this  cost  is  saved.  Of  course 
the  field  must  be  fenced;  but,  if  regular  fields  are  provided 
near  the  house,  on  which  to  raise  pasture,  peas  and  corn 
for  the  hogs,  and  these  fields  are  permanently  fenced,  the 
annual  cost  of  fencing  is  not  a  very  large  item. 


SWINE  239 

Not  all  the  corn  raised  would  be  fed  off,  for  it  is  not 
well  to  have  the  hogs  in  the  field  after  snow  and  cold  weather 
come.  Six  or  eight  pigs  five  to  seven  months  old  will  ordi- 
narily clean  up  an  acre  of  average  corn  during  the  fall. 

Waste  by  Hogging  Crops. — Allowing  hogs  to  help  them- 
selves to  a  crop  is  called  "hogging  off  the  crop."  This 
practice  is  generally  regarded  as  very  wasteful — that  the 
hogs  trample  down  and  waste  a  great  deal  of  the  crop. 


Figure  106. — Duioc  Jersey,  Orion's  Pathfinder  399213.  At  11  months  stood  35  in. 
high,  measured  70  in.  from  root  of  tail  to  end  of  nose,  and  weighed  44  )  lbs. 
Courtesy  Shepard  and  Freers,  Muscatine,  Iowa. 

Little  of  the  crop  is  wasted  if  the  hogs  are  turned  into  a 
small  patch  sufficient  to  last  two  or  three  weeks  at  a  time. 

Results  obtained  by  experiment  stations  and  practical 
farmers  show  that  an  acre  of  corn  will  make  fully  as  much 
and  often  more  pork,  where  hogs  help  themselves,  than 
where  it  is  husked  and  fed  to  the  hogs  in  a  yard. 

At  one  of  these  experiment  stations  one  lot  of  hogs 
was  turned  into  a  field  of  corn,  and  another  similar  lot 
was  shut  in  a  yard  and  fed  husked  corn.  It  was  found 
that  the  hogs  in  the  field  required  7.35  lbs.  of  grain  to  make 
a  pound  of  gain,  while  those  in  the  yard  required  8.59  lbs. 
of  grain  to  make  a  pound  of  gain. 
Questions: 

1.  In  what  ways  may  we  reduce  the  amount  of  labor  necessary 
in  caring  for  fattening  hogs? 

2.  Of  what  use  are  field  peas  as  a  feed  for  hogs? 

3.  What  can  you  say  regarding  "hogging  ofif  com"? 


240 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


Arithmetic: 

1.  If  it  costs  $1.25  to  plow  an  acre  of  land,  50c.  to  harrow  it  3 
times,  25c.  to  plant  it,  $1.60  to  cultivate  it  4  times,  and  60c.  to  manure 
it,  25c.  for  seed,  and  $3.00  for  rent,  how  much  does  it  cost  to  raise  an 
acre  of  corn? 

2.  If  it  costs  $7.50  to  raise  an  acre  of  corn,  and  $2.00  annually 
to  fence  it,  how  much  does  it  cost  per  acre?  How  much  does  the  corn 
cost  per  bushel,  if  it  yields  40  bushels  per  acre? 

3.  If  it  requires  8  lbs.  of  ear  corn  to  make  one  pound  of  pork, 
how  many  pounds  of  pork  will  40  bus.  of  ear  corn  make?  (72  lbs.  per 
bu.)  How  much  will  the  pork  made  from  40  bus.  of  corn  be  worth  at 
5c.  per  lb.? 

FEEDINQ  SOWS  AND  PIGS 

Feeding  the  Brood  Sow. — It  is  very  easy  to  overfeed 
a  brood  sow  in  winter.     If  she  has  raised  two  litters  of  pigs 

during  the  year,  so  she  is  likely 
to  be  thin  in  the  fall,  she  will 
need  considerable  feed  until 
she  begins  to  fatten  up  a  lit- 
tle. If  she  has  raised  but  one 
litter,  which  is  the  practice  on 
most  farms,  she  will  have  had 
the  whole  fall  to  fatten  up, 
and  very  little  grain  is  neces- 
sary or  desirable  during  the 
winter. 

Bulky  Feed. — If  only  one 
or  two  sows  are-kept,  the  slops 
from  the  house  furnish  an  ex- 
cellent form  of  bulky  feed, 
which  helps  to  satisfy  their 
appetites,  but  really  contains 
little  nutriment.  If  a  large 
number  of  sows  are  kept,  the 
slops  from  the  house  do  not 
go  very  far,  and  one  is  likely 
to  feed  them  more  grain,  to 
keep  them  from  squealing, 
than  they  really  need.  If 
supplied  with  good  clover  hay, 
hogs  will  soon  learn  to  eat  it; 
^^Sdcra^jftfuimefSfo^'lS'     and    this  fumishcs   the  bulk 


SWINE  241 

they  need  and  some  nourishment,  so  that  they  do  not 
need  so  much  grain  to  satisfy  them.  Roots  are  an  excel- 
lent form  of  feed  for  brood  sows.  As  they  are  succulent, 
they  aid  in  digestion,  supply  bulk  and  variety,  and  tone  up 
the  system. 

Suggested  Rations. — The  following  grain  mixtures  have 
been  fed  to  brood  sows,  in  addition  to  clover  hay,  with  very 
satisfactory  results: 

1.  Shorts  1  part,  corn  3  parts  (by  weight). 

2.  Oil  cake,  1  part,  corn  7  parts  (by  weight). 

About  ^  lb.  of  either  of  these  mixtures  per  day,  per  100 
lbs.  live  weight  of  hog,  is  sufficient,  if  enough  bulky  food, 
as  hay  or  roots,   is  fed  to  satisfy  the   appetite. 

Mother's  Milk  for  Young  Pigs. — The  very  best  feed  for 
young  pigs  for  the  first  few  weeks  is  the  dam's  milk.  If 
the  sow  has  been  well  cared  fol*  previous  to  farrowing  and 
is  liberally  fed  after  farrowing,  she.  will,  if  she  is  the  right 
kind  of  a  mother,  give  a  liberal  amount  of  milk.  At  two  or 
three  weeks  of  age  the  young  pigs  begin  to  develop  a  desire 
for  something  besides  their  mother's  milk.  Provision  should 
be  made  to  feed  them  some  light  but  muscle-forming  food, 
as  skimmed  milk  with  a  little  meal  added.  * 

Clean  Feed. — Only  clean,  wholesome  feed  should  be 
fed  to  the  small  pigs,  and  the  trough  in  which  they  are 
fed  should  be  kept  clean;  because  their  digestion  is  easily 
deranged  and  a  pig  is  valuable  only  when  his  digestion  is 
good.  No  feed  should  be  left  in  the  trough  from  one  feeding 
time  to  the  next.     Feed  only  what  they  can  eat  up  cleaii. 

Keep  Pigs  Growing. — The  aim  in  feeding  young  pigs 
should  be  to  keep  them  growing  every  day;  and,  since  their 
capacity  to  make  use  of  feed  determines  their  usefulness, 
it  is  well  to  so  feed  them  as  to  strengthen  and  develop  this 
capacity.  Bulky  feeds  containing  a  good  proportion  of 
muscle-forming  feed,  as  milk,  milk  and  shorts,  clover  pasture, 
etc.,  are  very  good  kinds  of  feed  for  young  pigs. 

Summer  Feed. — If  but  one  litter  of  pigs  is  raised  per 
year,  they  should  come  in  the  spring  and  can  be  raised  on 
pasture.  Pasture  furnishes  the  cheapest  feed  on  the  farm, 
and  good  feed  too.  Pigs  are  often  kept  in  small  pens  and 
fed  grain  and  slops.    This  practice  is  undesirable  for  several 

16 — 


242  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

reasons.  It  is  expensive  both  in  labor  and  in  feed.  It  does 
not  provide  the  exercise  necessary  for  the  best  development 
of  g;rowing  pigs  or  breeding  stock.  Last,  but  not  least, 
it  is  difficult  to  find  any  feed  so  well  adapted  to  the  growing 
pig  as  good  clover  pasture,  supplemented  with  milk  from  the 
sow,  skimmed  milk  and  good,  clean  slops  thickened  with 
shorts  or  other  muscle-forming  feed. 

Pasture. — Red  clover  furnishes  very  cheap  pasture, 
because  the  seed  is  sown  with  the  preceding  grain  crop  and 
no  plowing  or  preparation  of  the  land  is  necessary.  Hogs 
relish  young  and  succulent  pasture;  and  as  clover  grows 
very  rapidly  during  the  early  part  of  the  summer,  and  the 
young  pigs  do  not  eat  as  much  as  they  will  later,  the  clover, 
if  tlie  pasture  is  large  enough,  usually  gets  ahead  of  them. 
It  is  well,  then,  to  cut  with  a  mower  a  small  strip  of  the  clover 
next  to  the  pens,  early  in  June.  This  part  will  start  up  soon 
and  furnish  the  best  kind  of  pasture.  The  rest  may  be  cut 
for  hay  the  latter  part  of  June.  The  second  crop  will  come 
on,  and  the  hogs  will  be  larger  and  need  more  feed  than  ear- 
lier, and  will  likely  keep  pace  with  the  growing  clover. 

Rape,  rye,  field  peas  or  any  other  of  the  grain  crops 
furnish  |ood  annual  pasture  for  hogs,  if  for  any  reason 
one  has  not  the  clover.  Blue  grass  and  white  clover,  or 
bromus  and  white  clover,  make  very  good  permanent 
pastures,  if  it  seems  undesirable  to  rotate  the  crops  and  thus 
supply    clover    pasture. 


Figure  107 A — A  prize  winning  Hampshire. 


SWINE  '  243 

Questions: 

1.  Why  is  one  likely  to  overfeed  brood  sows? 

2.  In  what  way  may  the  tendency  to  overfeed  brood  sows  be 
overcome? 

3.  How  much  grain  does  a  brood  sow  need  per  day  per  100  lbs. 
live  weight? 

4.  What  are  three  important  points  in  the  feeding  of  little  pigs? 
Arithmetic: 

1.  If  a  sow  \yeighs  350  lbs.  and  requires  %  lb.  of  grain  per  day 
per  100  lbs.  live  weight,  how  much  grain  should  she  receive  per  day? 

2.  If  it  costs  $10  per  year  to  keep  a  brood  sow,  what  is  the  aver- 
age cost  per  pig  at  birth,  if  she  raises  five  pigs?     If  she  raises  eight  pigs? 

3.  If  100  lbs.  of  shorts  worth  $20  per  ton  and  300  lbs.  of  corn 
worth  42c.  per  bushel  (56  lbs.)  are  mixed  together,  how  many  pounds 
of  feed  will  there  be  in  the  mixture?  What  is  the  average  price  per 
pound?  If  a  400-lb.  sow  is  fed  fi  lb.  of  the  mixture  per  100  lbs.  live 
weight,  how  much  will  her  grain  ration  cost  per  day? 

Exercises: 

1.  List  the  hogs  found  in  your  community  under  the  heads  of 
lard  type  and  bacon  type.     Which  class  predominates? 

2.  Try  to  procure  an  estimate  of  the  loss  in  your  school  district 
from  hog  cholera  during  the  last  year.  What  preventive  measures 
are  the  farmers  employing? 

3.  Ascertain  the  local  practice  in  regard  to  "hogging  off"  com, 
in  regard  to  pasturing  hogs,  and  what  other  green  feeds  may  be  fed. 

4.  Select  some  small  pig  and  weigh  it  every  week  or  month  for 
several  mcmths..  Keep  a  careful  record  of  its  increase  in  weight.  Is 
it  uniform? 

5.  It  is  said  that  in  the  packing  houses  every  part  of  the  pig, 
except  the  squeal  is  utihzed.  Can  you  tell  what  the  various  products 
are? 


CHAPTER  XIX 

POULTRY,  BIRDS  AND  BEES 

POULTRY  ON  THE  FARM' 

Importance  of  Poultry  Industry. — Many  persons  believe 
that  raising  poultry  is  a  small  business,  hardly  worthy  of 
a  man's  time,  and  that  a  few  chickens  are  good  simply  as  a 


Figure  108. — A  neat  flock  of  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks. 

pastime  for  those  who  live  in  town,  or  as  a  source  of  pin 
money  for  women  on  farms. 

It  is  true  that  the  greater  part  of  the  poultry  raised  is 
raised  in  just  this  way;  but,  in  spite  of  this  fact,  poultry 
brings  to  the  farms  of  the  country  many  millions  of  dollars 
annually.  In  fact,  the  poultry  product  of  the  United 
States  is  greater  than  the  dairy  product.  In  many  dairy 
communities,  where  creameries  ship  out  twenty  to  fifty 
thousand  dollars  worth  of  butter  a  year,  the  poultry  and 
eggs  sold  bring  in  as  much,  and  in  some  cases  more,  than 
the  butter. 

Poultry  Records. — The  Minnesota  Experiment  Station 
has  been  gathering  very  accurate  statistics  for  several  years, 
on  eight  average  farms  in  each  of  three  counties  in  Minne- 


POULTRY,  BIRDS  AND  BEES  245 

sota,  namely,  at  Halstad,  Norman  Co.;  Marshall,  Lyon  Co.; 
and  Northfield,  Rice  Co.  These  statistics  show  that  the 
value  of  poultry  products,  used  and  sold  per  farm  in  1908, 
was  $56.61  at  Halstad,  $95.75  at  Marshall,  and  $150.43  at 
Northfield.  This  makes  an  average  of  about  $100  per  farm 
for  poultry  products  per  year. 


Figure  109. — White  Leghorns,  a  type  of  the  light  breeds,  which  are  the  best  layers^ 

In  the  United  States  in  1909  there  were  produced  1,591,- 
311,371  dozens  of  eggs  on  farms.  The  value  was  $306,- 
688,960.  Practically  the  same  farms  reported  the  production 
of  445,650,124  fowls,  valued  at  $202,506,272. 

A  Start  with  Poultry. — Boys  and  girls  who  feel  a  liking 
for  poultry  are  urged  to  undertake  it  as  a  means  of  making 
a  little  spending  money,  of  earning  their  way  through  school, 
or  as  a  business  worthy  of  study.  The  mother  should  be 
relieved  ,of  a  part  or  all  of  the  care  of  the  poultry.  She  no 
doubt  wiU  share  the  earnings  with  them  very  liberally.  If 
poultry  is  really  a  part  of  the  farm  business,  the  father  will, 
or  should,  at  least,  be  glad  to  give  them  a  definite  part  of 
the  work  to  do  and  a  share  in  the  income,  or  preferably 
give  them  entire  charge  of  a  portion  of  the  flock.  If  there 
is  a  place  where  poultry  may  be  kept,  a  few  specimens  of 


246  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

some  preferred  breed  should  be  secured  as  a  start.  There 
will  be  many  things  to  learn,  but  information  gained  in 
this  way  is  fully  as  important  as  what  is  learned  at  school. 
Father  and  mother  will  be  able  to  assist;  and,  if  there  is  a, 
poultry  man  in  the  vicinity  who  is  doing  well,  he  will  no 
doubt  give  a  great  deal  of  valuable  information.    A  few 


Figiire  110. — White  Wyandottes,  a  type  of  the  general  purpose  breeds  valuable 
for  both  meat  and  egg  production. 

poultry  bulletins  and  papers  should  be  read,  and  interest 
and  success  are  almost  sure  to  follow. 

Breeds  of  Poultry. — There  are  a  great  many  breeds  of 
poultry,  and  most  of  them  are  good  under  special  condi- 
tions. There  is  no  best  breed.  If  no  particular, breed  is 
preferred,  good  specimens  of  a  breed  common  in  the  neighbor- 
hood should  be  secured. 

All  common  breeds  of  chickens  may  be  divided  into 
three  classes — egg,  meat  and  general  purpose — according 
to  what  they  are  adapted  to  produce,  just  as  cattle  are 
divided  into  dairy,  beef  and  general  purpose  classes. 


POULTRY,   BIRDS   AND   BEES  247 

In  the  egg  producing  class  we  have  the  Leghorns,  Min- 
orcas,  Spanish  and  Andalusians.  In  the  meat  producing 
class  are  found  the  Cochins,  Brahmas,  and  Langshans. 
And  in  the  general  purpose  class,  or  those  well  adapted  to 
produce  both  eggs  and  meat,  are  the  Plymouth  Rocks, 
Wyandottes,  Rhode  Island  Reds,  and  Orpingtons. 

There  are  good  and  poor  birds  in  any  breed,  and  the 


Figure  111. — Barred  Plymouth  Rocks,  a  type  of  the  medium  or  general    purpose 

breeds. 

only  way  to  be  reasonably  sure  of  getting  good  chickens  is 
to  get  them  from  a  flock  that  has  a  good  record  as  producers 
of  either  eggs  or  meat,  or  both. 

Questions: 

1.  Compare  the  poultry  and  the  dairy  industries. 

2.  Does  the  poultry  in  your  neighborhood  receive    as    much 
attention  as  the  dairy? 

3.  What  is  the  conservative  estimate  of  the  poultry  product  in 
your  state? 

4.  What  are  the  three  classes  into  which  all  the  common  breeds 
of  poultry  may  be  divided? 


248  ELEMENT8  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Arithmetic: 

1.  If  a  farmer  keeps  50  hens  and  each  hen  lays  125  eggs  in  a 
year,  how  many  dozen  eggs  will  the  farmer  get  in  a  year?  How  much 
will  these  eggs  be  worth  at  20c.  per  dozen? 

2.  If  a  farmer  keeps  50  hens  and  half  of  them  produce  10  chickens 
each,  how  many  young  chickens  will  he  have?  How  much  are  they 
worth  at  35c.  each? 

3.  If  9,000  lbs.  of  grain,  worth  Ic.  per  pound,  is  required  to 
keep  50  hens  one  year  and  raise  250  chickens,  what  is  the  total  cost  of 
feed? 


Figure  112. — Two  baskets  of  eggs.  The  one  on  the  left  represents  the  75  eggs 
laid  by  the  average  hen  in  one  year.  The  one  on  the  right  represents  220  eggs 
laid  in  a  year  by  the  best  hen  at  the  Crookston  Experiment  Station. 

CARE  OF  POULTRY 

Sitting  Hens. — Like  any  other  class  of  live  stock,  poultry,, 
to  do  well,  must  be  well  cared  for.  During  the  early  part 
of  the  summer  the  young  chicks  require  considerable  atten- 
tion. A  great  deal  of  time  may  be  saved,  if  several  hens 
are  set  at  one  time  in  a  building  separate  from  the  main 
poultry  house.  We  mention  raising  chicks  in  this  way, 
because  but  comparatively  few  persons  use  incubators.  A 
woodshed  or  corncrib  that  is  clean,  and  that  may  be  dark- 
ened, is  a  good  place  in  which  to  set  hens.  In  the  evening 
take  as  many  broody  hens  as  you  can  get,  or  as  you  want, 
and  put  them  in  this  shed  or  crib,  that  has  been  well  cleaned 
and  provided  with  good,  clean  nests,  preferably  near  or  on 
the  floor.  Shut  these  hens  in  over  night  and  darken  the 
windows.  If  they  continue  broody  the  next  morning,  set 
them  at  once  with  eggs  selected  from  the  best  hens.     Then 


POULTRY,  BIRD8  AND  BEES  249 

provide  them  with  plenty  of  shelled  corn  or  other  grain, 
fresh  water  and  a  box  of  ashes  or  road  dust  for  their  dust 
baths.  It  will  be  well  also  to  dust  some  insect  powder  in 
the  nest  to  keep  away  lice  and  mites.  It  is  but  little  more 
work  to  care  for  a  dozen  sitting  hens  in  this  way  than  to 
care  for  one. 

The  Young  Chicks. — For  the  first  day  or  so  after  the 
young  chicks  are  hatched  they  will  not  need  anything  to 
eat,  and  it  is  well  to  keep  them  in  the  nest.  If  the  room 
is  darkened,  the  old  hens  will  not  be  in  such  a  hurry  to 
leave  the  nests.  When  the  chicks  are  about  thirty  or  thirty- 
six  hours  old,  give  them  some  bread  crumbs  slightly  moistened 
in  milk.  Feed  them  several  times  during  the  day.  After 
a  day  or  so,  some  ground  oats,  with  the  hulls  removed,  may 
be  added,  and  after  a  week  or  ten  days  some  ground  or 
cracked  grain,  as  corn  or  wheat,  may  supply  a  part  of  their 
ration.  Very  small  kernels  of  wheat  and  millet  seed  are 
also  very  good.  The  chicks  should  be  supplied  at  all  times 
with  pure,  fresh  water  and  fine  grit.  Too  much  care  can- 
not be  taken  in  keeping  their  water  and  feed  clean.  Plent}^ 
of  exercise  is  also  necessary.  On  the  farm  the  chickens 
usually  have  the  run  of  the  whole  place,  which  is  the  best 
possible  condition  for  them,  as  they  can  then  get  exercise, 
insects,  grit,  and  green  food — things  that  are  not  so  easily 
suppHed  when  they  are  confined. 

Care  of  Hens  in  Winter. — Eggs  are  one  of  the  chief 
products  of  poultry,  and  one's  success  in  the  business  usually 
depends  upon  getting  eggs  in  the  winter,  when  they  bring 
a  good  price.  Pullets  hatched  early  in  the  spring  are  more 
likely  to  lay  during  the  winter  than  old  hens.  To  get  eggs 
in  the  winter,  one  must  supply  as  nearly  as  possible  summer 
conditions.  In  other  words,  chickens  must  be  forced  to 
get  exercise  by  scratching  for  their  feed,  as  is  necessary  if 
their  grain  feed  is  thrown  in  loose  straw  or  fitter.  They 
should  have  something  to  take  the  place  of  bugs  and  worms 
that  they  get  in  the  summer.  Scraps  of  meat  and  ground 
bone  will  answer.  They  must  have  something  to  take  the 
place  of  the  sharp  stones  and  gravel  that  they  pick  up  as 
they  run  about  the  fields.  Crushed  .stone  or  crockery  will 
supply  this  grit.     Such  material  is  sold  on  the  market  as 


250  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

grit,  and  poultry  should  always  have  a  supply  in  winter. 
The  grit  aids  them  in  digesting  their  food.  They  need 
something  to  take  the  place  of  the  green  food  they  get  in 
summer.  Cabbages,  beets,  potatoes  or  sprouted  grains  will 
supply  this  need.  Some  material  containing  lime,  from 
which  they  can  make  egg  shells,  is  also  necessary.  Crushed 
oyster-shells,  kept  constantly  before  them,  will  supply  the 
necessary  lime.  They  must  be  kept  comfortable — that  is, 
their  house  should  be  kept  warm  enough  so  that  their  combs 
will  not  freeze.  Their  houses  should  be  sufficiently  venti- 
lated to  supply  fresh  air  and  keep  the  coop  dry.  They 
should  have  a  supply  of  pure  water,  a  place  for  a  dust  bath, 
and  a  clean  coop  free  from  vermin.  If  these  few  simple 
precautions  are  observed  and  a  liberal  supply  of  a  variety 
of  grains,  as  wheat,  barley,  oats,  and  corn,  with  an  occasional 
mash,  are  supphed,  poultry  should  prove  profitable. 
Questions: 

1.  In  what  way  may  the  work  of  caring  for  sitting  hens  be 
lessened? 

2.  What  can  you  say  regarding  the  care  of  young  chicks? 

3.  What  conditions  must  be  provided  for  hens  in  winter,  if 
they  are  to  lay? 

Arithmetic: 

1.  The  average  hen  lays  about  75  eggs  per  year.  What  are 
the  eggs  worth  at  20c.  per  dozen? 

2.  Some  hens  lay  200  eggs  per  year.  What  are  the  eggs  worth 
at  20c.  per  dozen? 

3.  If  a  hen  can  cover  15  eggs,  how  many  eggs  will  7  hens  cover? 
What  would  these  hens  cost  at  50c.  each? 

4.  If  each  hen  lays  100  eggs,  worth  20c.  per  dozen,  and  raises 
10  chicks,  worth  30c.  each,  in  a  year,  what  is  the  annual  income  per 
hen?     What  is  the  total  annual  income  from  50  hens? 

A  100-HEN  POULTRY  HOUSE 

A  Poultry  House. — There  are  a  great  many  types  of 
poultry  houses  which  include  all  the  principles  required. 
It  is  simply  a  matter  of  choice  with  the  owner.  We  describe 
a  very  common  type,  merely  to  emphasize  the  essentials. 

We  will  explain  in  detail  a  house  16  x  32  feet  in  size, 
large  enough  for  from  eighty  to  one  hundred  hens. 

It  is  placed  on  well  drained  land,  somewhat  protected 
from  the  north  and  west,  and  stands  the  long  way  east  and 
west,  with  the  high  side  to  the  south. 


POULTRY,  BIRDS  AND  BEES  ^51 

The  foundation  is  of  stone  or  concrete,  set  in  the  ground 
at  least  one  foot,  and  extending  above  ground  six  inches. 
A  sill  4x6  inches  is  placed  on  top  of  the  foundation  and 
the  studding  spiked  on  top  of  the  sill.  The  house  is  43^ 
feet  high  at  the  back  and  8  feet  high  at  the  front.  It  has 
a  shed  roof  made  of  boards  covered  with  prepared  roofing. 
The  studdings  are  placed  two  feet  apart  and  boarded  with 
rough  boards.  The  building  is  then  papered  with  building 
paper  and  sided. 

Doors  and  Windows. — A  door  is  placed  in  each  end, 
near  the  south  side;  and  four  windows,  about  2x4  feet  in 
size,  are  made  in  the  south  side.  They  are  placed  high,  so 
the  sun  will  shine  clear  to  the  back  part  of  the  coop.  There 
wiU  be  an  opening  near  the  floor  on  the  south  side,  through 
which  the  hens  may  be  let  out,  or  a  door  may  be  placed  in 
this  side,  if  desired.  The  windows  are  made  to  slip  up  and 
down,  the  same  as  in  a  house.  At  least  one  of  the  windows 
is  provided  with  a  muslin  or  duck  curtain;  and,  except  in 
the  most  severe  weather,  the  upper  sash  is  let  down  and  the 
opening  covered  with  the  canvas.  The  canvas  may  be  on 
a  frame,  hinged  at  the  top,  or  simply  tacked  in  the  opening. 
This  provides  ample  ventilation  without  draught  and  keeps 
the  air  pure  and  dry.  In  cold  weather  the  windows  may 
be  partly  closed,  but  never  entirely. 

Inside  Finish. — The  inside  may  be  left  with  the  bare 
studding  or  preferably  ceiled  with  matched  lumber.  The 
house  is  partitioned  into  two  parts,  the  lower  three  feet 
of  the  partition  being  of  boards,  so  that  the  fowls  cannot 
fight,  and  the  upper  part  of  wire  netting. 

Roosts. — To  make  it  easy  to  clean  the  coop,  and  to 
leave  all  the  floor  space  available  for  feeding  and  exercising, 
a  platform  three  feet  wide  is  built  against  the  north  wall 
23^  feet  from  the  floor.  This  is  to  catch  the  droppings  and 
should  be  made  of  matched  lumber.  Arms  of  ?  x  4's,  234 
feet  long,  are  attached  to  the  back  wall  one  foot  above  the 
platform,  to  extend  out  over  the  platform.  Legs  are  placed 
under  the  outer  ends  of  these  arms  to  hold  them  level  with 
the  platform.  On  top  of  these  arms  and  at  right  angles  to 
them  are  placed  two  poles,  or  2  x  3's  edgewise,  with  corners 
rounded  off,  for  roosts.     The  back  roost  is  about  one  foot 


552 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


from  the  wall  and  the  second  fifteen  or  sixteen  inches  from 
the  first.  A  muslin  curtain  is  hung  from  the  ceiling  to 
drop  in  front  of  the  roosts  when  needed.  To  clean  the 
droppings  from  the  platform  the  roosts  may  be  unhooked 


Figure  113. — Floor  plan  of  poultry  house 

and  removed,  or  the  front  side  raised,  and  both  hooked  to 
the  ceiling.  They  are  then  out  of  the  way^  so  that  the  clean- 
ing may  be  thoroughly  done. 

Nests. — For  nests  a 
box  8  to  12  feet  long  and 
12  inches  wide  is  made, 
with  sides  8  inches  high. 
This  is  divided  into 
nests  12  to  14  inches 
long,  with  partitions  18 
inches  high.  Hens  prefer 
nests  that  are  rather 
dark ;  so  a  good  place  for 
them  is  under  the  front 
edge  of  the  platform.  Place  this  row  of  nests  close  up 
under  the  front  edge  used  for  a  droppings  board.  Then 
hinge  a  10-inch  board  in  front  of  the  nests  to  close  the 
10-inch  space  between  the  platform  and  the  8-inch  board 
on  the  front  side  of  the  nests.     This  darkens   them  some- 


Figure  114. — Cross  section  of  poultry  house- 
Note  arrangement  of  roosts  and  nests 
leaving  floor  space  open. 


POULTRY,  BIRDS  AND  BEES  253 

what.  The  hens  enter  from  behind.  The  high  par- 
titions between  the  nests  prevent  the  hens  from  go- 
ing from  one  nest  to  the  next,  so  they  are  not  likely 
to  disturb  one  another  and  break  or  dirty  eggs.  When 
gathering  the  eggs  the  board  in  front  is  opened.  These 
nests  should  be  loose,  so  that  they  may  be  taken  out  to  be 
aired,  sunned  and  sprayed,  when  desired,  to  keep  them  free 
from  mites  and  lice. 

The  Floor. — A  cement  floor  covered  with  a  little  sand 
and  clean  litter  is  the  best  for  a  poultry  house,  as  it  can  be 
kept  dry  and  clean  with  very  little  work. 

With  a  poultry  house  as  described,  one  can  keep  poultry 
clean  and  comfortable  the  whole  year  through. 

Questions: 

1.  What  can  you  say  regarding  the  size  and  arrangement  of 
windows  in  a  poultry  house? 

2.  What  advantages  are  there  in  having  the  roosts  and  other 
inside  fixtures  of  a  poultry  house  removable? 

3.  Describe  a  good  arrangement  for  nests  in  a  poultry  house. 
Arithmetic: 

1.  How  many  yards  of  muslin  in  a  strip  16  ft.  long  and  3  ft. 
wide?     How  much  would  it  cost  at  12c.  per  yard? 

2.  How  many  feet  of  lumber  would  be  required  to  build  a  plat- 
form 3  ft.  wide  by  16  ft.  long?  (Allow  1-6  for  matched  lumber.) 
How  much  would  it  cost  at  $30.00  per  thousand  feet? 

3.  To  make  a  row  of  nests  12  ft.  long,  as  described  above,  requires 
2  pieces  1  x  8,  1  piece  1  x  10,  and  1  piece  1  x  12 — all  12  ft.  long,  and 
1  piece  1  X  12,  20  ft.  long.  How  many  feet  of  lumber  are  required? 
How  much  would  it  cost  at  $!24.00  per  thousand  feet? 

FEEDING  LATINO  HENS  » 

Rations  for  Laying  Hens. — It  is  not  easy  to  determine 
the  amount  of  feed  eaten  by  an  average  laying  hen.  If  a 
person  is  to  study  the  poultry  business  from  a  practical 
point  of  view  he  must  know  approximately  the  requirements 
of  his  flock.  It  must  be  remembered  that  food  requirements 
vary;  but  it  is  well  to  have  some  basis  for  one's  calculations. 
We  submit  a  few  rations  that  have  been  fed  by  practical 
poultrymen,  successfully.  The  following  rations  are  based 
on  the  requirements  of  an  average  laying  hen  for  one  day. 

Ration  No.  1,  reported  by  the  Cornell  Experiment 
Station.  See  Bulletin  No.  212,  page  11:  .175  lbs.  wheat; 
.07  lb.  ground  bone;  ,022  lb.  cabbage. 


254  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

The  above  is  the  average  amount  fed  per  day  to  each 
hen.  The  actual  amount  varied  each  day  as  the  require- 
ments of  the  hens  varied.  Early  in  the  morning  a  part  of 
the  wheat  was  scattered  in  the  straw  on  the  floor  of  the 
coop.  In  the  middle  of  the  afternoon  the  flock  was  fed  all 
the  cooked  cut  meat  and  bone  they  would  eat  up  quickly. 
Then  at  4:30  p.  m.  they  were  given  a  liberal  feed  of  wheat 
again.  The  wheat  was  always  scattered  in  the  straw  to 
make  the  fowls  exercise.  The  cabbage  was  fed  by  having 
a  head  suspended  from  a  wire  and  in  reach  of  the  hens. 

In  addition  to  the  feed,  the  hens  always  had  a  supply 
of  fresh  water,  grit  and  oyster-shells.  Grit  is  necessary  to 
aid  in  the  digestion  of  the  food,  and  oyster-shells  are  neces- 
sary to  supply  the  material  of  which  egg-shells  are  made. 

Ration  No.  2,  reported  by  the  Utah  Experiment  Station, 
Bulletin  No.  92,  page  139:  .156  lb.  mked  grain;  .022  lb. 
ground  bone;  .004  lb.  beef  scraps;  .008  lb.  gluten  meal;  .066 
lb.  skimmed  milk. 

As  in  ration  No.  1,  grit,  shells  and  water  were  supplied 
in  addition  to  the  feed.  The  figures  represented  the  average 
amount  of  each  kind  of  feed  given  per  day  to  each  hen. 
Ration  No.  2  supplies  a  little  more  variety  than  No.  1,  but 
has  the  disadvantage  of  necessitating  the  purchase  of  feeds 
not  raised  on  the  farm. 

Variety. — Hens,  like  any  other  class  of  stock,  like  a 
variety  of  feeds,  and  in  this  respect  the  last  ration  is  good. 
Variety  in  grains  is  very  desirable,  and  is  easily  provided 
by  feeding  a  mixture  of  the  common  farm  grains.  Corn 
can  profitably  be  added  to  the  ration,  even  of  laying  hens, 
to  replace  a  part  of  the  grain  feed.  Corn  is  the  cheapest 
of  the  grain  feeds.  If  corn  is  fed,  it  is  well  to  give  it  the 
last  thing  in  the  afternoon,  so  that  the  hens  may  have  a 
crop  full  when  they  go  to  roost;  but  a  large  amount  of  corn 
is  too  fattening.  Millet  seed,  buckwheat  and  sunflower 
seed  are  good  feeds  to  add  in  small  amounts  to  the  grain 
ration,  to  add  variety. 

Green  Feed. — Chickens  will  eat  quite  an  amount  of 
fine  cut  clover  or  alfalfa,  or  the  leaves  that  may  usually  be 
gathered  in  the  mow  or  at  the  bottom  of  the  chute  where 
clover  or  alfalfa  hay  is  thrown  down.     This  may  be  fed 


POULTRY,  BIRDS  AND  BEES  255 

dry,  or  moistened  and  mixed  with  a  little  ground  feed. 
Hens  will  eat  several  pounds  of  this  material  during  the 
winter,  if  given  the  opportunity. 

Mangels,  beets  or  carrots  are  also  valuable  feeds  for 
laying  hens  in  winter.  Such  feeds  take  the  place  of  the 
green  grass  hens  eat  in  the  summer. 

Ration  No.  3. — Fed  with  good  results  by  the  Maine 
Experiment  Station.  See  Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  357,  page 
33,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture:  .246  lb.  grain  and  meal; 
.011  lb.  oyster  shell;  .006  lb.  dry  cracked  bone;  .005  lb. 
grit;  .006  lb.  charcoal;  .027  lb.  clover. 

The  above  is  the  average  amount  given  per  hen  per 
day.  This  ration  was  fed  in  practically  the  same  manner 
as  ration  No.  1,  except  for  the  mash  or  ground  feed.  This 
mash  was  made  of  a  mixture  of  2  parts  by  weight  of  bran, 
1  part  cornmeal,  1  part  middlings,  1  part  gluten  meal,  1 
part  linseed  meal  and  1  part  beef  scraps,  and  was  kept 
constantly  before  the  birds  in  a  feed  trough  with  a  slatted 
front.     This  mash  was  fed  dry. 

A  simpler  mash,  composed  of  bran,  some  ground  grain 
of  any  or  several  kinds,  and,  if  possible,  a  little  beef  scrap, 
would  likely  do  as  well  as  the  more  complicated  mash. 

Questions: 

1.  Describe  the  method  followed  in  feeding  ration  No.  1. 

2.  What  can  you  say  regarding  feeding  hens  several  different 
kinds  of  feed? 

3.  In  what  ways  may  green  feed  be  supphed  to  hens  in  winter? 

4.  Describe  the  composition  and  method  of  feeding  the  mash  in 
ration  No.  3. 

Arithmetic: 

1.  How  much  of  the  various  kinds  of  feed  will  a  hen  eat  in  200 
days,  if  fed  ration  No.  1? 

2.  How  much  will  it  cost  to  feed  a  hen  200  days  on  ration  No. 
1,  if  wheat  is  worth  85c.  per  bushel,  ground  bone  Ic.  per  pound,  and 
cabbage  $5.00  per  ton? 

3.  How  many  eggs  must  a  hen  lay  in  200  days  to  pay  for  her 
feed,  if  she  is  fed  ration  No.  1  and  eggs  are  worth  25c.  per  dozen? 

BIRDS 

Importance  of  Birds. — It  is  estimated  that  insects  destroy 

many  millions  of  dollars  worth  of  crops  each  year.     It  may 

safely  be  stated  that  the  chief  food  of  birds  is  harmful 

insects.     On  this  account  birds  generally  are  very  valuable 


256  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

to  farmers  economically  as  well  as  being  a  delight  with 
their  songs  and  calls.  Birds  deserve  the  protection  and 
care  of  farmers.  It  is  encouraging  that  we  are  beginning 
to  realize  the  importance  of  birds,  and  that  their  wanton 
slaughter  by  boys,  hunters  and  those  seeking  them  to 
adorn  ladies'  hats,  is  being  discouraged,  and  in  many  states 
laws  have  been  passed  to  protect  them. 

Know  Birds. — Every  boy  and  girl  should  learn  to  know 
birds.  A  few  birds  are  really  harmful  and  should  be  des- 
troyed, but  only  a  few.  Many  suspected  by  casual  ob- 
servers of  being  harmful  have,  on  close  study,  proved  to 
be  helpful.  Even  hawks  and  owls,  which  have  too  often 
been  condemned,  are  generally  worthy  of  protection.  The 
only  safe  policy  is  either  to  know  birds,  so  as  to  be  sure 
that  the  ones  killed  are  really  harmful,  or  else  assume  that 
all  birds  are  useful.  Write  to  the  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C,  for  Farmers'  Bulletins  Nos. 
509,  513,  621  and  630.  These  bulletins  will  give  much 
useful  information  about  birds  and  how  to  attract  and  pro- 
tect them.  Write  also  to  the  Secretary  of  the  National 
Association  of  Audubon  Societies,  at  1974  Broadway,  New 
York,  N.  Y.,  for  further  information. 

Attract  birds  to  your  homes  by  providing  them  with 
water,  suitable  houses,  by  supplying  some  of  the  winter 
birds  with  food  during  severe  weather,  by  protecting  them 
from  cats,  and  by  growing  groves  and  shelter  belts.  There 
are  few  things  more  pleasant  than  to  waken  in  the  morning 
with  the  air  literally  filled  with  the  music  of  birds.  It  is 
even  more  pleasant,  if  you  know  that  some  effort  of  yours 
has  helped  to  make  it  possible  for  them  to  live  and  thrive 
in  your  neighborhood.    It  not  only  is  pleasant,  but  it  pays. 

BEES 

Importance  of  Bees. — The  total  honey  crop  of  the 
country  is  not  large;  that  is,  it  does  not  represent  nearly 
so  much  wealthy  as  the  wheat  crop  or  dairy  products,  but 
nearly  everyone  likes  honey,  and  honey  is  said  to  be  one 
of  the  most  wholesome  sweets.  While  there  are  not  a  great 
many  who  derive  large  incomes  or  make  a  business  of  keep- 
ing bees,  it  is  believed  that  more  should  keep  them.     Bee- 


POULTRY,  BIRDS  AND  BEES 


257 


keepiQg  is  light,  pleasant  work,  and  nearly  every  family 
in  the  country  might  at  least  have  an  abundant  supply  of 
fresh  honey  in  return  for  a  very  little  labor. 

Varieties  of  Bees. — More  persons  would  keep  bees,  if 
they  were  not  afraid  of  being  stung.  The  common  black 
honey  bee  is  often  quite  vicious  and  will  sting  at  the  least 


Figure  115. — A  well-developed  apiary. 

provocation.  Italian  bees  are  now  quite  common  and,  if 
handled  at  all  reasonably,  are  not  in  the  least  vicious. 
Most  bee-keepers  handle  the  ItaUan  bees  with  bare  hands 
and  bare  faces  and  very  rarely  are  stung. 

Sources  of  Honey. — Honey  is  the  nectar  of  flowers 
gathered  by  bees.  White  clover,  sweet  clover,  buckwheat 
and  basswood  are  the  chief  sources  of  honey,  though  the 
bees  will  gather  honey  from  a  great  variety  of  flowers,  if 
none  of  the  choice  plants  are  available.  Honey  is  a  product 
that,  unless  gathered  and  stored  by  bees,  is  entirely  lost. 
Bees  not  only  gather  honey,  a  useful  product,  from  a  source 
that  costs  nothing,  but  they  are  of  material  benefit  to  many 
of  the  plants  they  visit,  as  they  aid  in  the  pollination  of 
the  flowers. 

A  hive  of  bees  on  every  farm  is  a  good  slogan.  To 
know  about  bees  and  their  industrious,  orderly  habits  is 


i58  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRAGTIOB 

an  inspiration.  In  every  hive  there  is  a  queen,  several 
drones,  and  several  thousand  workers.  The  workers  go 
through  a  regular  course  of  training  that  fits  them  for  their 
work.  Then  they  work  industriously  as  long  as  they  live, 
which  is  usually  only  a  few  weeks.  Write  to  the  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture  at  Washington,  D.  C,  or  to 
your  State  College  of  Agriculture  for  information  about 
bees. 
Questions: 

1.  Name  as  many  of  the  common  birds  of  your  comm.unity  as 
you  can  and  tell  whether  they  are  useful  or  harmful. 

2.  How  may  one  encourage  the  nesting  of  birds  about  one's 
home?     Why  is  it  advisable  to  do  this? 

3.  Tell  what  you  can  about  bees. 
Arithmetic: 

1.  It  has  been  estimated  that  insects  cause  a  loss  of  $700,000,000 
annually  to  farm  crops  in  the  United  States.  How  much  does  this 
loss  amount  to  per  farm?  (There  are  7,000,000  farms  in  the  United 
States.) 

2.  If,  by  destroying  the  birds,  this  loss  from  insects  were  doubled, 
what  would  be  the  total  loss  in  the  United  States?  What  would  be 
the  total  loss  per  farm? 

3.  If,  by  protecting  useful  birds  and  increasing  their  numbers 
the  loss  could  be  reduced  50%,  what  would  be  the  total  saving  in  the 
United  States?    What  would  be  the  total  saving  per  farm? 

Exercises: 

1.  As  many  pupils  as  can  do  so  should  keep  at  least  a  few  pure- 
bred fowls  of  some  chosen  breed.  A  careful  record  of  all  expenses 
and  returns  should  be  kept.     Report  results  at  end  of  the  school  year. 

2.  Weigh  a  dozen  large  eggs  and  then  a  dozen  small  ones.  Note 
the  difference.     Proportionately,  how  much  more  valuable  are  the  larger 


3.  If  interested  in  raising  large  flocks  of  chickens,  get  bulletins 
on  incubators  and  brooders.  Also  try  to  examine  an  incubator  and 
observe  one  in  use. 

4.  Put  some  suet  or  grain  outside  for  birds  in  winter.  In  some 
shady  spot  make  a  place  for  birds  to  drink  and  bathe  in  the  summer 
time. 

5.  Find  out  what  a  hive  of  bees  costs,  how  much  it  costs  to  keep 
it,  and  what  average  returns  may  be  expected  from  it.  Show  also  in 
what  respect  bees  are  valuable  aside  from  being  a  money  maker. 


CHAPTER  XX 


AGRICULTURAL  ENGINEERING 

THE  ROAD  PROBLEM 

Importance. — Few  boys  and  girls  realize  the  great  im- 
portance of  roads.  As  we  walk  over  them  to  school  day- 
after  day  we  are  likely  to  think  how  bad  or  how  long  they 
are,  rather  than  to  think  what  they  are  for,  how  they  are 
made  and  how  maintained. 

Uses  of  Roads. — Roads  are  used  as  a  means  of  com- 

mmiication,  and 
as  they  become 
better  it  is  easier 
for  persons  to 
travel  and  to  haul 
loads  upon  them. 
Where  roads  are 
good,  therefore, 
we  can  with  less 
effort  and  much 
greater  comfort 
go  to  school,  to 
church,  to  town 
and  to  our  neigh- 
bors. Such  con- 
ditions make  life 
pleasanter  in  the 
country  and  have 
a  very  strong  ten- 
dency to  make 
property     more 


Heure  116. — A  well-constructed  turnpike. 


valuable.  Good  roads  have  an  educational  and  social  in- 
fluence of  as  much  importance  as  their  economic  value. 
Cost  of  Roads. — We  often  hear  the  remark  that  roads 
are  poor,  because  it  costs  too  much  to  build  good  ones. 
But  did  it  ever  occur  to  you  that  bad  roads  may  cost  more 


260 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


than  good  ones?  All  products  of  the  farm  must  be  trans- 
ported over  roads,  and  it  may  cost  more  to  haul  these 
products  to  market  for  several  years,  over  poor  roads,  than 
to  build  good  roads  and  haul  the  products  over  them. 

Points  to  Consider. — Are  the  roads  good  between  your 
home  and  the  schoolhouse?     Between  your  home  and  town? 


1 

r 

Figure  117. — A  specimen  of  a  bad  road. 

Are  there  steep  hills,  or  places  where  the  road  is  rough, 
or  muddy,  or  sandy?  Have  you  thought  that  the  size  of 
the  load  that  can  be  hauled  to  town  is  determined  by  the 
size  of  the  load  that  can  be  hauled  over  the  worst  place  or 
places?  This  is  true ;  and  many  times  one  has  to  go  to  town 
with  only  half  a  load,  on  account  of  some  bad  place  in  the 
road.  The  cost  of  marketing  farm  products  is  thus  in- 
creased and  consequently  the  price  of  farm  produce  tends 
to  increase;  because,  if  the  roads  are  bad,  fewer  products 
can  be  brought  to  town  and  fewer  farmers  will  try  to  get 
products  to  market.  Persons  who  Uve  in  town  and  have 
to  buy  the  farm  products  are  interested  in  good  roads,  be- 
cause they  want  to  get  their  vegetables,  flour,  etc.,  as  cheap 


AGRICULTURAL  ENGINEERING  261 

as  possible.  For  this  reason  it  is  right  to  tax  all  the  people 
in  the  county,  state  or  in  the  United  States,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  building  good  roads,  because  all  the  people  are 
benefited  by  them. 

Roads  are  nearly  always  four  rods  wide.  This  width 
consumes  a  great  deal  of  land.  A  strip  two  rods  wide  is 
taken  off  all  land  adjoining  a  highway.  Roads  are  made 
this  width  to  give  ample  room  for  turning  and  to  allow 
space  for  ditches,  cuts  and  fills. 
Questions: 

1.  In  what  way  do  poor  roads  affect  the  price  of  farm  products? 

2.  Why  is  it  right  for  those  living  in  town  to  pay  part  of  the 
expense  of  building  good  roads? 

3.  Explain  how  poor  roads  may  be  more  expensive  than  good 
ones. 

4.  What  are  some  of  the  advantages  of  good  roads  besides  mak- 
ing it  easier  to  market  farm  products? 

Arithmetic: 

1.  If  ten  teams  pass  over  a  road  each  day,  how  many  trips  will 
be  made  over  the  road  in  a  year? 

2.  If  3,650  trips  are  made  over  a  road  each  year,  and  there 
would  be  a  saving  of  2c.  per  mile  each  trip,  if  the  roads  were  good, 
how  much  would  be  saved  per  mile  per  year? 

3.  If  $1,000  per  mile  were  invested  in  good  roads,  and  $73  were 
saved  annually  thereby,  how  long  would  it  take  to  pay  the  $1,000, 
drawing  4%  interest  by  applying  the  $73  saved  annually? 

ROAD  CONSTRUCTION 

The  object  in  view  in  road  building  is  to  make  the  road 
bed  as  near  level  as  possible,  that  is,  to  avoid  hills;  also  to 
make  and  keep  it  as  firm  and  unyielding  as  possible  with 
the  material  and  labor  at  hand.  It  is  sometimes  no  farther 
around  a  hill  than  over  it,  and  in  such  cases  it  is  much  more 
practical  to  go  around.  A  pail  handle  is  often  used  to  illustrate 
this  point.  When  standing  erect  the  handle  is  the  same  length 
as  when  lying  down,  but  a  road,  as  represented  by  the  erect 
handle,  would  be  much  harder  to  travel  than  a  road  repre- 
sented by  the  handle  lying  flat. 

Stone  Roads. — In  the  older  countries,  and  in  the  older 
and  more  thickly  populated  portions  of  this  country,  a  large 
portion  of  the  roads  are  built  of  some  hard  material,  as 
stone.  A  very  common  form  of  stone  road  is  called  ma- 
cadam. It  is  named  after  the  man  who  invented  this 
process  of  road  building.     To  build  a  macadam  road,  the 


262  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

bed  is  first  given  the  slope  desired,  then  covered  with  a 
layer  of  coarse,  crushed  rock,  which  is  rolled  with  a  heavy 
roller.  Then  another  layer  of  finer  crushed  rock  is  placed 
on  top,  and  rolled  until  it  works  in  between  the  particles  of 
the  coarser  material.  More,  but  still  finer,  crushed  rock  or 
sand  is  added,  sprinkled  with  water  and  rolled  until  a  smooth, 
hard  surface  is  formed.     A  stone  road  made  as  previously 

described,  and  from  6 
inches  to  12  inches  thick, 
makes  an  excellent,  hard, 
permanent  road.  Such 
roads  cost  so  much 
($3,000  to  $6,000  per 
mile)  that  they  can  be 
built  only  where  the  pop- 
ulation is  dense  and 
where  there  is  a  great 
deal  of  travel  over  them. 
Earth  Roads. — Inmost 

Figure    118. — A    split-log    drag    faced    with       formino*       fli<5fript<5  for 

steel.      (See  description  and  cost  page  252).       I^rmmg       QlStriCIS,         lOr 

many  years  to  come, 
roads  must  be  made  of  the  material  at  hand;  which 
means,  in  most  cases,  common  earth.  Such  roads,  if  proper- 
ly made  and  maintained,  are  very  serviceable  and  may  be 
much  better  than  country  roads  generally  are. 

Drainage. — Since  the  object  in  making  roads  is  to  keep 
them  hard,  it  is  plain  that,  to  do  this,  water  must  be  kept 
from  standing  at  or  near  the  surface.  Drainage,  then,  is 
the  first  problem  in  building  roads  (except  sandy  roads) 
and  it  is  safe  to  say  that,  if  all  roads  were  properly  drained, 
the  greatest  problem  in  road  building  would  be  solved. 

The  Turnpike. — The  most  common  form  of  road  is  a 
turnpike,  made  by  taking  earth  from  each  side  of  the  road 
and  putting  it  in  the  middle.  This  makes  a  very  good 
form  of  road,  as  the  center  of  the  road  is  high,  so  that  the 
water  runs  off  to  the  sides  into  the  ditches  constructed 
there.  Often  water  remains  in  these  ditches,  because  no 
outlet  is  provided  by  which  it  can  escape  into  the  natural 
waterways.  Water  standing  beside  a  road,  and  within  two 
to  four  feet  of  the  surface,  is  very  often  detrimental  to  the 


AGRICULTURAL  ENGINEERING 


263 


roadbed,  as  it  soaks  up  through  the  earth  and  keeps  it  soft. 
It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  ditch  across  some  farmer's 
land  to  get  the  water  out  of  these  roadside  ditches.  Farmers 
should  willingly  co-operate  with  the  town  board  to  do  such 
work.  Instead,  they  sometimes  object.  But  in  most  states 
the  town  board  is  authorized  by  law  to  construct  such 


Figure  119. — Cutting  weeds  along  the  roadside. 

ditches  as  are  necessary  across  any  property.  It,  of  course, 
must  pay  damages,  if  such  ditch  does  damage  the  property; 
but,  if  it  proves  a  benefit,  then  the  owner  of  the  property 
must  help  pay  the  cost  of  constructing  it. 

Where  the  road  is  made  mostly  of  clay,  it  is  greatly 
benefited  by  the  addition  of  sand,  as  the  mixture  is  less 
sticky,  sheds  water  better  and  dries  out  more  quickly.  Like- 
wise sandy  roads  are  benefited  by  covering  them  with  clay, 
as  the  clay  helps  to  bind  the  sand  together  and  keep  the 
road  hard. 

If  good  gravel  is  at  hand,  that  is  sharp  and  will  pack 
together,  almost  any  of  the  common  earth  roads  will  be 
benefited  by  a  coating  of  it. 

Good  gravel  roads  are  better  than  earth  roads,  but  not 
so  good  as  stone  roads.     They  are  much  cheaper  than  stone 


264  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

roads;  and  many  communities  are  graveling  a  few  miles  of 
road  each  year,  thereby  gradually  securing  a  very  service- 
able system  of  roads. 
Questions: 

1.  What  is  the  chief  object  in  view  in  road  building? 

2.  Tell  how  a  macadam  road  is  built. 

3.  What  is  the  first  problem  to  consider  in  constructing  earth 
roads? 

4.  Why  is  a  turnpike  a  good  form  of  road? 

Arithmetic: 

1.  If  a  road  is  4  rods  wide,  how  many  square  feet  of  surface  are 
there  on  a  mile  of  road? 

2.  If  there  are  30  in.  of  rainfall  in  a  year,  how  many  tons  of  water 
fall  on  a  mile  of  road  in  a  year? 

(A  cu.  ft.  of  water  weighs  62.42  lbs.) 

3.  How  many  cubic  yards  of  gravel  are  required  to  cover  a  mile 
of  road  12  ft.  wide  and  6  in.  deep? 

MAINTENANCE  OF  ROADS 

Road  Repairing. — In  well  settled  communities  the  main 
part  of  road  work  is  to  keep  roads  in  repair.  Repair  consists 
in  fixing  bridges  and  culverts,  filling  in  ruts  and  mudholes, 
opening  old  and  making  new  side  ditches,  and  smooth- 
ing off  and  rounding  up  the  roadbed  so  it  will  readily  shed 
water.  After  an  earth  road  is  well  made — that  is,  made  as 
level  as  practicable  and  built  into  a  turnpike  with  ditches 
on  either  side — there  is  nothing  so  cheap  and  effective  for 
keeping  it  in  repair  as  the  split  log  drag. 

Kill's  Split-Log  Drag. — Every  one  interested  in  good 
roads  should  know  of  the  King  split  log  drag.  It  is  named 
after  Mr.  D.  Ward  King,  of  Maitland,  Missouri,  who  first 
made  known  to  the  public  the  value  of  this  excellent  little 
implement.  It  is  made  of  a  log  ten  or  twelve  inches  through 
and  about  eight  feet  long,  split  in  halves.  The  halves  are 
fastened  together  by  boring  two-inch  holes  through  them 
and  driving  in  strong  stakes  two  and  one  half  to  three  feet  long, 
just  as  a  wood-rack  bed  is  made,  with  both  split  surfaces 
of  the  log  facing  the  same  way.  If  a  log  is  not  at  hand,  a 
timber  about  three  inches  by  eight  inches  may  be  used 
instead.  The  efficiency  of  the  drag  is  increased  by  putting 
a  strip  of  steel  on  each  cutting  edge  as  shown  in  Figure  118. 
The  drag  then  cuts  better  and  wears  much  longer.     It  is 


AGRICULTURAL  ENOINEERmo  265 

drawn  by  a  chain  in  the  direction  of  its  faces,  and  at  an 
angle,  so  that  it  pushes  earth  toward  the  center  of  the  road 
just  as  a  reversible  road  grader. 

Why  Earth  Roads  Need  Dragging. — When  a  road  is  first 
made  it  has  a  gradual  and  continuous  slope  from  the  center 
towards  the  sides.  No  place  is  left  for  water  to  stand  on 
the  road,  and  it  soon  dries  off  after  a  rain.  As  heavy  loads 
are  drawn  over  earth  roads,  the  wagon  wheels  cut  into  the 
surface  and  throw  up  a  ridge  just  outside  of  where  the 
wheels  run.  You  can  see  this  on  almost  any  road,  especially 
after  a  rain.  If  these  wheel  tracks  are  allowed  to  remain, 
when  it  rains  water  will  stand  in  them  and  soften  the  road- 
bed. Then  as  wagons  pass  over  them  they  are  made  much 
deeper.  The  road  drag  is  the  simplest  way  of  filling  these 
ruts.  It  is  cheaply  constructed,  and  one  man  and  two  or 
three  horses  can  manage  it. 

When  to  Use  a  Road  Drag. — You  have  no  doubt  heard 
of  "puddling''  soil — working  it  when  it  is  wet.  Farmers 
sometimes  make  reservoirs  for  water  in  clay  soil  by  excavat- 
ing a  hole,  wetting  the  soil  in  the  bottom  and  tamping  it  or 
leading  horses  or  cattle  about  in  the  muddy  bottom.  This 
puddling  makes  the  soil  hold  water.  Since  we  want  the 
surface  of  the  road  to  be  impervious  to  water,  it  is  desirable 
to  have  it  puddled.  This  can  best  be  done  by  dragging  it 
soon  after  a  rain,  when  it  is  still  wet.  If  a  puddled  surface 
will  hold  water,  as  in  the  case  of  reservoirs,  it  will  also  shed 
water  when  rounded  and  smoothed,  as  on  a  dragged  road. 
There  are  also  other  reasons  for  dragging  at  such  a  time. 
The  surface  of  the  road  is  soft  and  the  ridges  are  more  easily 
cut  off  and  pushed  to  the  center.  Men  and  teams  can  not 
work  to  good  advantage  in  the  fields,  and  the  road  dries 
more  quickly.  When  all  main  traveled  earth  roads  are 
dragged  soon  after  every  heavy  rain,  roads  will  be  very 
much  better  than  they  are  now,  and  the  cost  of  this  work 
is  so  slight  that  any  well  settled  farming  community  can 
afford  it,  or  each  farmer  can  well  afford  to  drag  the  road 
along  his  property. 

If  a  hole  is  to  be  filled  in  a  road,  material  similar  to  the 
road  should  be  used,  i.  e.,  it  is  not  wise  to  fill  holes  in  a  clay 
road  with  sand  or  holes  in  a  sandy  road  with  clay,  as  they 
do  not  wear  uniformly  and  so ^  make  the  road  rough. 


266  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Sandy  roads  are  best  maintained  by  keeping  them 
covered  with  straw  or  other  vegetable  matter,  as  this  helps 
to  hold  moisture,  and  sandy  roads  are  firmer  when  moist 
than  when  dry.  One  of  the  state  highway  commissions 
suggests  that  the  road  supervisors  in  sandy  sections  sow  some 
strong  growing  crop  in  the  right  of  way,  to  cut  and  throw 
in  the  road. 
Questions: 

1.  Describe  a  King  split-log  drag. 

2.  For  what  reasons  do  earth  roads  need  dragging? 

3.  What  is  accomplished  by  dragging  a  road  when  it  is  still  a 
little  wet? 

Arithmetic: 

1.  How  many  feet  of  lumber  in  two  timbers  3  in.  thick,  10  in. 
wide  and  8  ft.  long?     How  much  is  it  worth  at  $30  per  thousand  feet? 

2.  How  much  will  a  strip  of  mild  steel,  ^  in.  thick,  2^  in.  wide 
and  16  ft.  long,  weighing  3  lbs.  per  ft.  cost  at  3c.  per  pound? 

3.  A  boy  can  make  a  road  drag  with  the  above  materials  in  5 
hours.  His  time  is  worth  10c.  per  hour.  What  is  the  total  cost  of 
the  drag? 

4.  A  boy  with  3  horses  can  drag  a  mile  of  road  in  1  hour.  How 
much  will  it  cost,  if  the  boy's  time  is  worth  10c.  per  hour  and  each 
horse's  time  is  worth  9c.  per  hour?  How  much  will  it  cost,  if  he  drags 
the  mile  of  road  five  times?     If  he  drags  it  ten  times? 

DBAZNAQE 

Drainage  is  the  process  of  opening  up  a  channel  by 
which  the  surplus  water  in  the  soil  may  run  off  by  the  force 
of  gravity.  In  hilly  or  rolling  land  drainage  is  provided 
naturally,  as  the  water  runs  off  over  the  surface.  Sandy 
soils  with  sandy  or  gravelly  subsoil  seldom  require  artificial 
drainage,  because  the  surplus  water  easily  runs  down  through 
the  ground.  Flat  land,  or  heavy  clay  land,  or  even  sandy 
land  with  a  heavy  clay  subsoil  that  the  water  cannot  get 
through,  often  requires  drainage.  There  are  two  general 
ways  of  draining  land,  surface  drainage  and  tile  drainage. 

Drainage  where  needed  affords  one  of  the  most  profitable 
investments  on  the  farm.  Too  much  water  fills  the  spaces 
between  the  soil  particles  and  crowds  out  the  air.  We  have 
learned  that  seeds  and  the  roots  of  plants  require  air  that 
they  may  grow.  The  roots  of  common  field  crops  will  not 
grow  in  soil  that  is  filled  with  water;  that  is,  where  there  is 
so  much  water  that  it  crowds  out  the  air. 


AGRICULTURAL  ENGINEERING  2f?7 

Surface  drainage  is  provided  by  digging  ditches  through 
and  from  a  field  needing  drainage  to  a  lower  place  called 
the  outlet,  as  a  ravine,  a  river,  or  a  lake.  Unless  land  is 
higher  than  the  lake  or  river  to  be  used  for  an  outlet,  it 
cannot  be  drained  in  the  usual  way.  A  ditch,  to  be  effective 
in  draining  land,  must  start  at  the  lowest  place  to  be  drained 
and  continue  in  a  downward  slope  to  the  outlet.  Drain- 
age water  can  run  of  its  own  accord  only  down  hill.  Sur- 
face drainage  is  the  cheaper  method  and  the  more  common. 
The  chief  objection  to  it  is  the  continual  work  necessary 
to  keep  the  ditches  open.  Grass  and  weeds  grow  in  them 
and  clog  them  up  and  earth  washes  into  them  or  is  worked 
into  them  by  cultivation.  Open  ditches  are  also  trouble- 
some to  work  around.  The  space  occupied  by  the  ditch 
is  wasted,  and  weeds  are  likely  to  make  it  unsightly. 

Tile  drainage  is  the  more  expensive  form  of  drainage, 
but  is  very  much  to  be  preferred.  Tile  are  pipes  three  or 
more  inches  in  diameter,  one  foot  long,  and  are  made  either 
of  clay  or  concrete.  Clay  tile  are  at  present  more  common 
than  concrete.  Tile  are  laid  in  the  ground  two  and  a  half 
feet  or  more  deep,  and  on  a  gradual  grade  or  slope,  so  that 
any  water  that  gets  into  them  easily  runs  down  the  tile  to 
the  outlet.  Good  tile  drainage  work  requires  the  use  of 
rather  accurate  leveling  instruments,  and  careful  work  in 
la3dng  the  tile  to  insure  a  continuous  slope,  so  th€  water  will 
ail  run  out.  Good  tile,  well  laid,  will  last  almost  indefinitely. 
They  are  covered  with  soil,  so  that  there  are  no  irregular 
fields,  waste  land,  or  unsightly  strips  of  weeds,  as  is  the  case 
with  open  ditches. 
Questions: 

1.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  term  drainage? 

2.  What  are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  open  or  sur- 
face drains?  Of  a  tile  drain? 

Arithmetic: 

1.  If  drain  tile  are  1  ft.  long,  how  many  rods  of  drain  will  100 
tile  lay? 

2.  If  tile  cost  $30  per  1,000,  how  much  does  enough  tile  to  lay 
one  rod  cost? 

3.  If  an  acre  of  drained  land  yields  50  bus.  of  com  ner  year 
worth  50c.  per  bushel,  and  it  costs  $15  per  acre  to  grow  tne  crop, 
how  much  profit  will  there  be  per  acre?  How  many  similar  crops 
will  it  take  to  pay  for  its  drainage,  if  it  cost  $25? 


26S  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

IRRIGATION 

Irrigation  is  the  application  of  water  to  land  artificially. 
In  many  parts  of  the  United  States  there  is  not  enough 
rainfall  to  ensure  crops.  In  other  parts  there  is  practically 
no  rainfall.  In  these  places,  if  crops  are  to  be  grown,  water 
musf  be  supplied  artificially. 

Sources  of  water  for  irrigation  are  rivers,  reservoirs, 
wells  and  lakes.  Many  rivers  start  up  in  the  mountains 
and  flow  down  through  lower  and  flat  country.  For  irriga- 
tion purposes,  these  rivers  are  dammed  up,  or  a  part  of  the 
water  is  diverted  from  the  main  stream  and  carried  by 
means  of  ditches  to  the  land  to  be  irrigated.  Reservoirs  are 
often  constructed  in  some  position  higher  than  the  land  to 
be  irrigated.  Water  from  snow  or  rain  on  the  hills  higher 
than  the  reservoir  is  caught  in  the  reservoir.  As  it  is  wanted, 
it  is  conveyed  in  ditches  out  over  the  land  to  be  irrigated. 
Water  is  sometimes  pumped  from  wells,  streams  or  lakes, 
and  thus  raised  high  enough  so  that  it  can  be  carried  in 
ditches  to  fields  needing  irrigation.  Water  may  be  pumped 
directly  into  the  ditches  as  needed,  or  it  may  be  pumped 
at  any  time  and  stored  in  reservoirs  for  use  later. 

Distribution. — Watering  a  lawn  with  a  hose  or  a  flower 
bed  with  a  sprinkling  can  is  irrigating,  but  this  means  of 
applying  water  to  the  soil  is  naturally  limited  to  very  small 
areas.  During  a  crop  season  it  is  necessary  to  apply  water 
equal  to  several  inches  deep  over  the  land  to  ensure  a  good 
crop.  We  have  learned  that  it  requires  more  than  500 
barrels  to  cover  an  acre  one  inch  deep.  To  make  irrigation 
practical,  some  very  easy  way  of  distributing  water  is  neces- 
sary. The  most  common  way  of  distributing  water  is  by 
means  of  open  ditches.  Large  ditches  with  high  banks  are 
dug  through  the  fields  to  be  irrigated.  By  damming  up 
the  ditches  the  water  can  be  raised  in  them  a  Uttle  higher 
than  the  surrounding  fields.  Then  small  lateral  ditches  a 
few  feet  apart  may  be  opened  at  the  sides  of  the  big  ditch, 
and  the  water  will  then  flow  out  over  the  land  and  settle 
into  the  soil  just  as  rain.  In  a  few  places  water  is  carried 
over  the  fields  in  tile  laid  just  under  the  surface  of  the  soil. 
The  water  comes  out  of  the  joints  in  the  tile,  and  is  absorbed 
by  the  soil.    This  method  is  called  sub-irrigation. 


AGRICULTURAL  ENGINEERING  269 

Uses  of  irrigation  are  to  furnish  moisture,  and  some- 
times plant  food  for  growing  crops,  and  it  is  sometimes  used 
to  wash  out  of  the  soil  undesirable  salts  (called  alkali) 
occasionally  found  in  large  enough  quantities  in  soils  to 
injure  plants.  By  applying  large  quantities  of  water,  it 
dissolves  these  salts,  and  if  the  soil  is  tiled  or  has  a  porous 
subsoil,  they  are  carried  away  and  the  soil  will  become 
productive. 

Advantages  of  irrigation  are  a  sure  supply  of  moisture, 
which  is  not  always  the  case  when  farmers  depend  on  rain- 
fall. Water  may  be  applied  just  when  it  is  needed,  and  in 
just  the  amounts  needed.  In  such  sections  farmers  are 
very  seldom  bothered  by  rain  when  haying  or  harvesting. 
The  disadvantages  are  the  cost  of  the  water  and  ditches, 
the  labor  of  applying  the  water,  and  the  bother  of  the 
ditches  in  cultivating. 
Questions: 

1  What  is  irrigation?  What  experience  have  you  had  with 
irrigation? 

2.  What  are  some  of  the  sources  of  water  for  irrigation? 

3.  Describe  two  or  more  ways  by  which  irrigation  water  may 
be  applied  to  the  soil. 

Arithmetic: 

1.  How  many  cubic  yards  of  earth  would  be  moved  in  digging 
a  ditch  3  ft.  deep  and  3  ft.  wide,  80  rods  long?  How  much  would  it 
cost  at  15c,  per  yard? 

2.  How  many  acres  of  land  in  a  field  400  ft.  square?  How  many 
feet  of  furrows  or  small  lateral  ditches  would  be  needed  to  irrigate 
such  a  field,  assuming  there  was  a  main  ditch  along  one  side  and  that 
the  furrows  were  15  ft.  apart? 

FARM  MACHINERT 

Machinery  for  doing  farm  work  has  been  improved 
wonderfully  in  the  past  half  century.  In  fact,  there  is  no 
other  part  of  the  business  of  agriculture  that  has  improved 
so  much  as  the  machinery  used.  It  is  only  a  very  short 
time  ago  when  plows  were  very  crude,  and  crops  were 
planted,  harvested  and  threshed  by  hand.  The  people  of 
the  world  owe  much  to  the  men  who  have  given  their  time 
and  energy  to  the  improvement  of  farm  machinery.  The 
benefit  has  been  equally  valuable  to  people  living  in  cities 
as  well  as  to  farmers.  When  farm  crops  were  produced 
largely  by  hand  labor,  one  man  could  handle  only  a  very 


270 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


few  acres  of  land.  Now,  with  modern  machinery,  one  man 
can  handle,  in  the  production  of  general  farm  crops,  one 
hundred  or  more  acres  and  still  work  no  harder,  and  prob- 
ably not  so  hard  as  formerly.  The  effect  of  improved  farm 
machinery  on  agriculture  is  shown  by  the  following.   ' 

The  Bureau  of  Statistics  of  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  published  a  statement  to  the  effect 


HBHRHflMpii^'  '*'      JB 

|V|^ 

\ 

Figure  120. — Four  good  horses  on  a  gang  plow. 

that  in  1855  it  took  four  hours  and  thirty-four  minutes  of 
human  labor  to  produce  one  bushel  of  corn;  while  in  1894, 
a  bushel  of  corn  could  be  produced  with  but  forty-one 
minutes  of  human  labor. 

Investment  in  Machinery. — At  present  there  is  a  com- 
paratively large  investment  in  farm  machinery  on  every 
farm,  and  quite  a  considerable  part  of  the  farm  earnings 
must  be  expended  for  repairs  for  operating  expense  of 
machinery  or  for  new  machines.  Farm  machinery  is,  there- 
fore, well  worth  studying.  Sometimes  machines  are  pur- 
chased when  they  should  not  be,  and  sometimes  a  needed 
machine  is  not  purchased  when  it  would  be  real  economy 


AdRICULTURAL  ENGINEERING  271 

to  buy  it.  To  determine  whether  or  not  to  buy  a  machine 
requires  a  Httle  careful  study  of  the  facts  in  the  case.  It 
is  simply  a  question  of  what  is  the  cheapest  and  best  way 
of  doing  the  work  to  be  done. 

Example:  A  farmer  may  have  twenty  acres  of  com  to 
cut  each  year.  He  has  choice  of  several  things  to  do.  He 
may  be  able  to  hire  it  cut  by  hand,  and  can  find  out  about 
how  much  it  will  cost  him.  He  may  be  able  to  hire  a  neigh- 
bor who  has  a  corn  binder  to  cut  it.  He  will  know  how 
much  this  will  cost.  He  may  be  able  to  hire  a  binder  by 
the  day,  or  by  the  acre,  and  cut  it  himself.  He  can  figure 
the  approximate  cost,  or  he  may  buy  a  binder  and  cut  it 
himself.  To  determine  the  cost  when  he  owns  the  binder 
himself,  he  must  figure  in  interest  on  investment.  (A  new 
corn  binder  will  cost  about  $125.)  He  must  figure  deprecia- 
tion. (A  corn  binder  depreciates  about  10  per  cent  per 
year.)  He  must  figure  repairs,  twine,  oil  and  cost  of  shelter, 
also  the  labor  required  to  cut  the  twenty  acres  of  corn.  In 
this  way  he  may  determine  rather  accurately  which  is  the 
cheapest  way.  He  must  not  overlook,  however,  the  advan- 
tage and  satisfaction  that  comes  from  owning  a  machine 
and  having  it  to  use  just  when  he  wants  it  without  waiting 
for  someone  else  or  having  to  spend  time  looking  for  a  ma- 
chine or  helping  to  do  the  work. 

Using  Machinery. — Some  persons  can  get  much  more 
service  out  of  machinery  than  others.  To  do  good  work  a 
machine  must  be  in  good  condition,  well  oiled,  well  sharpened, 
if  it  is  a  machine  that  cuts,  the  parts  all  adjusted  so  that 
there  are  no  loose  joints  or  bearings  that  do  not  run  freely. 
One  used  to  a  machine  can  tell  instantly  by  the  sound  or 
work  of  it  whether  it  is  running  properly  or  not.  A  machine 
that  is  not  in  good  condition  is  wearing  out  much  more 
rapidly,  and  hauls  much  harder  than  one  that  is  in  good 
condition.  A  good  machinist  likes  machinery,  enjoys  see- 
ing it  run  well,  and  will  repair  it  at  once  when  it  is  out  of 
order.  Such  men  get  good  service  out  of  machinery,  do 
good  work  with  it,  and  find  real  pleasure  in  running  it. 

Shelter. — One  of  the  very  common  causes  of  loss  and 
short  life  of  farm  machinery  is  lack  of  shelter.  Some  ma- 
chines and  parts  of  machines  are  not  seriously  injured  by 


272  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

standing  out  of  doors,  while  other  machines  deteriorate  as 
rapidly  standing  idle  out  of  doors  as  when  in  use.  Machin- 
ery left  out  of  doors  not  only  depreciates  in  value,  but  it 
runs  harder,  is  unsightly,  is  usually  not  where  it  is  wanted, 
and  parts  are  often  found  missing  or  broken  just  when  the 
machine  is  wanted.  Modern  progressive  agriculture  that 
appeals  to  strong  industrious  men  and  women  requires  that 
convenient,  serviceable  shelter  be  provided  for  all  farm 
machinery,  and  that  each  machine  be  in  its  place  under 
cover  when  not  in  use. 
Questions: 

1.  What  can  you  say  about  the  improvement  in  farm  machin- 
ery? 

2.  Tell  what  you  can  about  operating  machinery. 

3.  Give  as  many  reasons  as  you  can  why  farm  machinery  should 
be  sheltered 

Arithmetic: 

1.  If  it  required  in  1855  4  hours  and  34  minutes  of  man  labor 
to  produce  a  bushel  of  corn,  how  many  bushels  could  a  man  have 
produced  in  one  day  of  10  hours? 

2.  If  a  man  can  now  produce  1  bushel  of  corn  in  41  minutes  of 
labor,  how  many  bushels  of  corn  can  be  produced  in  one  day  of  10 
hours? 

3.  Find  the  annual  cost  of  a  corn  binder,  including  depreciation 
10%,  interest  6%,  and  repairs  2%,  the  binder  costing  $125.  What 
is  the  cost  per  acre,  if  one  cuts  20  acres  of  corn  per  year? 

FARM  BUILDINGS 

Importance. — Farm  buildings  represent  from  10%  to 
30%  of  the  value  of  all  farm  property.  In  other  words, 
on  a  farm  worth  $10,000  the  buildings  are  worth  usually 
from  $1,000  to  $3,000.  On  the  average  farm  from  $100  to 
$300  is  spent  each  year  in  building  new  buildings  and  repair- 
ing and  remodeling  old  buildings.  Buildings  on  the  farm 
provide  shelter  for  family,  stock,  machinery,  crops  for  sale 
and  for  feed.  There  is  probably  no  other  thing  on  the 
farm  that  has  so  much  to  do  with  the  appearance  of  the 
farm  as  the  buildings.  For  the  above  reasons,  namely  on 
account  of  the  cost,  the  use  and  the  appearance  of  build- 
ings, it  is  very  important  that  very  careful  attention  be 
given  to  the  planning,  arrangement,  construction  and 
maintenance  of  farm  buildings. 

Permanence  and  Cost.— In  newly  settled  sections  it  is 


AGRICULTURAL  ENGINEERING 


273 


usually  necessary,  on  account  of  cost  and  uncertainty  as  to 
markets  and  types  of  farming,  to  build  rather  cheaply  and 
temporarily.  After  a  farming  community  is  well  estab- 
lished, the  farms  developed  and  equipped  with  live  stock 
and  machinery,  and  the  farm  is  earning  a  fair  income,  it 
•usually  becomes  advisable  to  plan  buildings  carefully,  and 
build  them  of  more  permanent  materials,  so  that  repairs 
and  depreciation  will  be  lessened.  A  log  building  or  a 
cheaply  constructed  frame  building  may  be  expected  to 


^P|l||l|lli!Jlii|P|HH^||P|'.  •t^ 


Figure  121. — An  attractive  barn. 

last  ten  or  fifteen  years.  A  well  built  frame  building,  a 
brick,  or  a  concrete  building  will  last  fifty  or  more  years. 
The  first  cost  of  the  more  permanent  buildings  will  be 
greater,  but  the  annual  cost  will  probably  be  no  more. 
Because  these  better  buildings  are  to  be  used  longer,  it  is 
more  important  that  they  be  well  planned  so  that  they 
will  serve  their  purpose  in  the  best  possible  way. 

Planning. — A  great  many  farm  buildings  are  put  up 
without  careful  planning.  Farm  buildings  may  be  just  as 
artistic  and  attractive  as  buildings  anywhere,  and,  if  so, 
will  make  the  country  more  attractive  and  help  to  offset 
the  pull  to  the  city.  Likewise  farm  buildings  are  used 
every  day  in  the  year  in  doing  the  work  of  the  farm,  and  if 
so  planned  as  to  facilitate  the  work  in  the  home  and  the 
work  of  caring  for  the  stock,  they  will  be  of  much  greater 
real  value.  Architects  have  made  a  special  study  of  plan- 
is— 


274  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

ning  buildings,  and  it  is  as  a  rule  real  economy  to  employ 
an  experienced  man  to  plan  any  buildings  of  importance. 
His  knowledge  of  available  materials,  their  strength  and 
uses,  and  the  proper  arrangement  of  parts  will  often  avoid 
expensive  mistakes  in  building  and  usually  give  greater 
satisfaction  and  value  for  money  expended  than  one  can, 
get  without  a  carefully  worked  out  plan. 

Conveniences  in  the  farm  home,  such  as  running  water, 
heat  and  light  are  now  becoming  quite  common  in  the  older, 
better  developed  sections  of  the  country.  With  the  dis- 
covery of  the  septic  tank  that  will  handle  and  dispose  of 
farm  sewage  with  little  cost  and  no  danger  to  health,  run- 
ning water  and  plumbing  may  be  had  in  country  as  well 
as  city  homes,  where  sewer  systems  are  provided.  (Your 
State  University  or  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture will  furnish  information  regarding  the  construction 
of  a  septic  tank.)  The  windmill  or  gas  engine,  now  found 
on  most  farms,  can  pump  water  for  the  house  as  well  as 
for  stock.  There  is  much  work  to  be  done  in  a  country 
home,  more  on  the  average  than  in  the  city^  home,  and 
inodern  convergences  that  will  li^^hten  or  make  more  pleasant 
this  work  should  be  as  freely  f)rovided  as  modern  up-to- 
date  machinery  is  provided  to  lighten  the  work  on  the  farm. 
Hot  and  cold  water,  so  piped  that  it  will  run  into  a  sink  or 
bathtub  when  wanted  and  out  again  when  one  is  through 
with  it,  is  as  great  a  convenience  in  the  country  as  in  the 
city,  and  may  be  provided  just  as  easily.  Electric  or  gas 
lights,  gas  for  cooking,  also  hot  air,  hot  water  or  steam  heat- 
ing plants  are  all  available  for  use  in  the  country,  and  as 
soon  as  finances  permit  should  be  provided. 

Maintenance. — Unless  kept  in  repair,  buildings  rapidly 
depreciate  in  usefulness,  value,  and  appearance.  It  is  well, 
if  possible,  to  have  a  definite  time  each  year  to  look  over 
all  the  buildings  on  the  farm  and  make  any  needed  repairs. 
Paint  adds  greatly  to  the  looks  of  buildings.  It  also  pro- 
tects them  from  deterioration.  Buildings  do  not  need  paint- 
ing every  year,  but  usually  should  be  painted  once  in  three 
to  five  years.  Window  lights  and  loose  hinges  and  boards 
should  be  repaired  or  replaced  as  soon  as  out  of  repair, 
likewise  stalls,  pens,  floors  and  mangers  should  be  looked 


AGRICULTURAL   ENGINEERING  275 

after.     Lack  of  attention  to  these  things  may  cause  serious 
loss  or  damage  besides  decreasing    the  value,   utility  and 
appearance  of  the  property. 
Questions: 

1.  What  can  you  say  about  the  importance  of  farm  buildings? 

2.  Do  you  thmk  the  farm  home  may  and  should  be  provided 
with  modern  conveniences?     Why? 

3.  What  are  some  of  the  things  to  look  after  in  keeping  buildings 
in  repair? 

Arithmetic: 

1.  Determine  as  nearly  as  you  can  the  total  value  of  all  the 
buildings  on  your  home  farm,  or  some  farm  with  which  you  are  fami- 
liar. 

2.  How  many  thousand  shingles  will  it  take  to  shingle  a  roof 
each  side  of  which  is  28  ft.  by  80  ft.,  if  1,000  shingles  will  cover  125 
sq.  ft.? 

3.  ]f  a  gallon  of  paint  will  cover  50  sq.  yds.  of  surface,  how 
much  paint  will  be  required  to  paint  a  square  house  30  ft.  by  30  ft., 
16  ft.  high? 

THE  SILO 

A  silo  is  a  receptacle  with  air-tight  walls  in  which  green, 
succulent  feed,  usually  corn,  may  be  put  and  kept  in  good 
condition  until  wanted.  Silos  are  usually  made  round, 
because  in  this  form  they  are  stronger,  and  there  are  no 
comers  in  which  it  is  difficult  to  pack  silage.  The  material 
stored  in  a  silo  is  called  silage. 

Importance. — A  silo  is  recognized  as  an  important  part 
of  the  equipment  of  an  up-to-date  stock  farm.  It  is  no 
longer  an  experiment,  as  silos  have  now  been  in  use  more 
than  twenty-five  years  in  this  country.  If  one  will  visit  a 
number  of  farmers  who  have  used  silage,  one  will  be  con- 
vinced that  the  silo  is  practical  on  a  fair-sized  stock  farm. 
Men  who  have  used  silos  are  their  strongest  advocates. 

Advantages. — Silage  is  relished  by  nearly  all  kinds  of 
farm  animals.  It  is  palatable,  nutritious,  and  is  a  means, 
by  which  the  entire  corn  plant  may  be  saved.  With  a  silo 
one  may  frequently  save  an  immature  crop  of  com  that 
would  otherwise  be  largely  wasted.  Mature  corn,  how« 
ever,  makes  the  best  silage.  The  silo  provides  for  the 
storage  of  a  large  amount  of  feed  in  a  small  space.  It  is 
a  convenient  means  of  storing  feed,  and  silage  may  be  fed 
at  any  time  of  year,  summer  or  winter,  or  it  may  be  kept 
over  from  year  to  year.     So  a  good  silo  filled  with  com 


276 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


silage  insures  one  against  a  shortage  of  feed  in  winter  or 
summer.  Silage  is  often  fed  in  summer  to  help  out  when 
pastures  are  short. 

Kinds  of  Silos,— There  are  a  great  many  kinds  of  silos. 
They  may  be  built  of  concrete,  of  brick  or  lumber.  There 
are  agents  in  nearly  every  community  who  are  advocating 
their  particular  kinds  of  silos.  They  quite  often  claim  that 
other  makes  of  silos  than  their  own  are  not  good.     Many 

Experiment  Stations,  as  well 
as  farmers,  have  used  all  the 
common  kinds  of  silos.  When 
well  made,  they  all  have  proved 
to  be  good.  Good  workman- 
ship is  necessary  in  a  silo,  be- 
cause it  must  be  air-tight, 
water-tight,  have  smooth  walls, 
and  be  strong  enough  to  with- 
stand great  pressure  from  the 
silage,  and  also  be  able  to  with- 
stand the  wind.  Any  silo  that 
has  these  qualities  will  be  found 
very  satisfactory  whether  built 
of  brick,  wood  or  concrete. 

Cost  of  Silos. — The  most 
common  size  of  silo  is  one  that 
will  hold  about  100  tons  of 
silage.  Such  a  silo  will  usually 
vary  in  cost  from  $200  to  $500, 
depending  quite  largely  on  the 
materials  used  and  the  prices 
of  materials  and  labor  in  the  community.  If  a  farmer  buys 
Si  silo  from  a  company  making  a  business  of  selling  silos  he  will 
pay  more  for  it  than  if  he  were  to  buy  the  materials  and  hire 
the  building  don«,  as  is  usually  the  case  with  other  farm 
buildings.  In  other  words,  he  can  get  a  silo  more  cheaply 
by  building  it  himself,  because  he  saves  the  expense  the 
silo  company  imust  stand  in  advertising  and  selling  their 
silo;  but  for  tjbke  extra  money  he  pays  for  a  patented  silo, 
he  is  saved  the  bother  of  planning  and  is  quite  likely  to  get 
.a  good  silo,  heeause  th^e  silo  company  has  usually  built 


Figure  122. — A  cojaorete  Wock  sjjo. 


AGRICULTURAL  ENGINEERING  277 

many  silos  and  knows  just  how  to  do  it.  If  a  man  is  a 
good  mechanic,  or  can  hire  a  good  mechanic  who  has 
had  experience  in  building  silos,  he  can  usually  save  some 
money  by  buying  his  materials  and  building  the  silo  him- 
self; but,  if  a  good  mechanic  is  not  available,  it  is  much 
better  and  safer  to  buy  some  good  patented  silo. 

Size  of  Silo. — Like  other  buildings,  the  silo  must  be 
planned  to  fit  the  needs  of  the  farm.  A  cow  will  eat  from 
30  to  40  lbs.  of  silage  per  day.  Other  animals,  like  calves, 
sheep,  steers,  etc.,  will  eat  about  the  same  ambunt  in  propor- 
tion to  their  weight.  Ten  100-lb.  sheep,  one  1,000-lb. 
steer,  or  four  250-lb.  calves  will  eat  about  the  same  amount 
of  silage  as  a  1,000-lb.  cow.  One  can  tell  about  the  number 
of  animals  on  the  farm  and  the  number  of  days  during  the 
year  they  must  be  fed,  and  from  that  determine  the  number 
of  tons  of  silage  likely  to  be  needed.  There  are  plenty  of 
books  and  bulletins  that  give  the  capacity  of  various  sized 
silos,  or  one  can  figure  out  the  approximate  capacity  quite 
easily  by  finding  the  number  of  cubic  feet  in  the  silo  and 
multiplying  this  by  40,  as  a  cubic  foot  of  silage  will  weigh 
about  40  pounds.  It  is  advisable  to  build  a  silo  suflftciently 
large.  A  tall,  narrow  silo  is  more  satisfactory  than  a  low, 
wide  one,  because  the  deeper  the  silage  the  more  it  becomes 
packed  on  account  of  the  pressure.  The  more  silage  is 
packed  the  better  it  will  keep.  The  top  of  the  silage  in  a 
silo  is  always  exposed.  If  a  silo  is  narrow  there  is  less  sur- 
face exposed. 
Questions: 

1.  What  is  a  silo? 

2.  What  are  some  of  the  advantages  of  a  silo? 

3.  Name  as  many  different  kinds  of  silos  as  you  can. 

4.  What  can  you  say  about  the  proper  size  of  silo  to  build? 
Arithmetic: 

1.  If  a  silo  costs  $332.50  and  holds  95  tons  of  silage,  how  much 
does  it  cost  per  ton  capacity? 

2.  A  man  has  20  cows  that  will  eat  35  lbs.  of  silage  per  day  each. 
How  many  tons  of  silage  will  he  need  to  feed  these  cows  200  days? 

3.  If  an  acre  of  com  produces  9  tons  of  silage,  how  many  cows 
will  it  feed  for  200  days,  at  the  rate  of  30  lbs.  of  silage  per  day? 

FENCING 

Kinds  of  Fences. — Fences  of  some  description  are  found 
on  nearly  every  farm.     Sometimes  these  fences  are  in  such 


278 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


poor  condition  that  they  are  very  little  improvement  to  a 
farm,  while  on  other  farms  they  are  straight,  well  built, 
well  kept  and  a  very  great  addition  to  the  farm  both  in 
usefulness  and  in  appearance. 

Fences  are  used  to  keep  stock  either  in  or  out  of  fields. 

Formerly  fences  were 
made  of  rails,  but  of  late 
years  timber  is  more 
scarce  and  other  fencing 
material  is  being  used. 
Barbed  wire  and  woven 
wire  are  now  compara- 
tively cheap,  easily  put 
up,  and  so  effective  in 
enclosing  stock  that  prac- 
tically all  fencing  is  of 
this  material,  even  in 
timbered  sections  where 
rails  are  plentiful. 

Fence  Posts. — There 
is  a  great  number  offence 


Figure    123. — A    poorly-braced    corner    post 
from  which  it  is  impossible  to  stretch  wires 
that  will  remain  tight. 


posts  used  every  year,  and,  as  timber  becomes  scarce,  posts 
become  more  and  more  expensive.  There  are  many  different 
kinds  of  timber  used  for  fence  posts,  and  they  vary  in  value 
according  to  their  durability.  Some  kinds  of  posts  will 
last  from  ten  to  twenty  years  before  they  rot,  while  other- 
kinds  will  become  useless  in  three  or  four  years.  As  a  rule, 
posts  that  last  well  are  made  of  slow-growing  timber,  such 
as  oak  or  cedar,  while  quick-growing  timber,  such  as  willow 
and  Cottonwood,  rots  very  quickly  when  placed  in  the  soil. 

Posts  deteriorate  when  set  in  the  ground,  by  rotting. 
They  usually  rot  off  just  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,, 
because  here  the  soil  keeps  them  moist  and  the  air  gets  in 
from  the  surface,  thus  making  conditions  favorable  for 
rotting.  The  top  of  the  post  does  not  rot,  as  it  dries  off 
too  quickly,  and  the  bottom  of  the  post  does  not  rot,  be- 
cause the  soil  keeps  the  air  away  from  it. 

A  process  has  been  discovered  by  which  wooden  posts 
may  be  treated  with  creosote  and  thus  made  to  last  two  or 
three  times  as  long  as  when  untreated.     This  process  is. 


AGRICULTURAL  ENGINEERING  279 

to  dip  the  posts  (or  the  part  that  is  to  go  into  the  ground) 
in  a  vat  of  hot  creosote.  The  creosote  soaks  into  the  wood 
and  keeps  them  from  rotting. 

Cement  Posts. — Cement  is  now  used  for  making  posts, 
by  mixing  it  with  sand  and  water,  then  tamping  it  into 
molds  of  the  proper  shape.  Such  posts  are  very  serviceable 
and  get  better  the  longer  they  stand.  The  only  way  in 
which  they  are  injured  is  by  breaking  them.  To  prevent 
this,  strips  of  wire  are  usually  put  inside  of  the  posts  as  the 
mortar  is  being  put  into  the  molds.  Cement  posts  are  not 
in  general  use,  as  few  persons  have  learned  to  make  them. 
The  first  cost  of  cement  posts  is  higher  than  for  wooden 
posts.     They  are  heavy  to  handle  and  some  httle  difficulty 


Figure  124. — A  well-braced  comer  post  that  will  always  remain  perpendicular  and 

hold  the  wire  tight. 

is  found  in  fastening  the  wire  to  them;  but,  considering 
their  durability,  they  are  not  expensive  and  will  probably 
be  used  to  a  great  extent  as  their  value  becomes  better  known. 

Steel  posts  are  now  used  to  some  extent  and  will  prob- 
ably be  used  more  than  at  present  as  timber  becomes  scarce 
and  as  more  permanent  fences  are  built. 

Investment  in  Fences. — Fencing  is  done  entirely  for  live 
stock,  hence  the  cost  should  be  charged  against  them. 
Fencing  intelligently  done  offers  a  good  investment,  but 
sometimes  fences  are  built  when  they  should  not  be.    Unless 


280  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

there  is  sufficient  live  stock  on  the  farm  to  require  good 
fences,  and  unless  the  live  stock  are  of  such  quality  as  to 
yield  a  profit  from  good  feed,  fences  are  not  a  profitable 
investment. 

The  larger  the  fields  fenced,  the  smaller  the  amount  of 
fencing  required  per  acre,  hence  it  costs  less  for  fencing, 
if  one  has  enough  cattle  to  use  a  large  pasture  than  when 
one  has  only  a  few  head  that  can  use  only  a  small  amount 
of  pasture.     Figure  this  out  for  yourself. 

Investing  money  in  fences  is  different  from  investing  it 
in  land,  because  fences  deteriorate  each  year  and  after  ten 
or  twelve  years  must  be  replaced.  If  one  invests  $10  in 
land,  it  is  probable  the  land  will  always  be  worth  $10  or 
more,  and  the  only  cost  each  year  is  the  interest  on  the 
investment.  If  one  invests  $10  in  fences,  the  cost  of  the 
fence  each  year  is  interest  on  the  investment  and  whatever 
depreciation  there  may  be.  If  the  fence  lasts  ten  years, 
it  is  worth  $1  less  each  year.  Thus,  to  be  a  paying  invest- 
ment, the  fence  must  earn  about  $1.60  per  year  to  pay  its 
cost,  while  the  land  must  earn  but  60c.  per  year. 
Questions: 

1.  What  is  the  chief  use  of  fences? 

2.  Of  what  are  they  usually  made  now? 

3.  Upon  what  does  the  value  of  fence  posts  depend? 

4.  By  what  process  are  wooden  posts  made  more  durable? 

5.  Why  must  an  investment  in  fences  be  regarded  differently 
from  an  investment  in  land? 

Arithmetic: 

1.  How  many  acres  of  land  in  a  field  40  rods  wide  by  120  rods 
long?  How  many  rods  of  fencing  are  required  to  enclose  it?  How 
many  rods  of  fencing  are  required  per  acre? 

2.  How  many  acres  of  land  in  a  field  80  rods  square?  How 
many  rods  of  fencing  are  required  to  enclose  it?  How  many  rods  of 
fencing  are  required  per  acre? 

3.  If  fencing  costs  25c.  per  rod  and  lasts  ten  years,  what  is  the 
annual  cost  per  rod?  (Figure  6%  interest  on  25c.  and  add  to  it  1-10 
of  the  cost  of  the  fence.)  How  much  is  the  annual  cost  per  acre  of 
such  a  fence,  if  10%  rods  are  required  to  enclose  an  acre? 

BUILDING  FENCES 

Good  Workmanship. — In  building  fences,  like  most 
other  kinds  of  work,  a  man  can  show  whether  or  not  he  is 
a  good  workman.     If  one  sees  straight,  well  built  and  well 


AGRICULTURAL  ENGINEERING  281 

kept  fences  on  a  farm,  one  expects,  and  is  very  likely  to  find, 
other  things  on  that  farm  orderly  and  properly  done.  A 
fence  often  remains  in  place  for  many  years.  If  it  is  crooked, 
it  is  an  eyesore  all  those  years.  If  it  is  straight  and  well 
kept,  it  is  a  constant  source  of  satisfaction  to  the  owner 
and  to  all  who  see  it. 

Comer  Posts. — Barbed  wire  fences  have  been  the  cause 
of  so  much  injury  to  animals  that  many  farmers  are  strongly 
opposed  to  them.  The  greatest  cause  of  injury  to  live  stock 
is  slack  wires.  These  are  not  found  where  the  wires  have 
been  properly  stretched  when  the  fence  was  built.  In  order 
to  stretch  wire  tight  it  is  necessary  to  have  the  corner  posts 
set  and  braced  firmly,  so  they  cannot  give  and  thus  allow 
the  wire  to  slacken.  With  corner  posts  set  as  in  Figure  123, 
it  is  impossible  to  keep  the  wire  tight;  but,  when  they  are 
set  and  braced  as  in  Figure  124,  they  will  always  remain 
firm  and  keep  the  wire  tight.  Observe  fences  in  your 
neighborhood  and  note  those  that  have  well  braced  corners. 

Setting  Posts. — Posts  are  usually  set  by  digging  holes 
with  a  post  auger  or  digger,  setting  in  the  posts  and  tamp- 
ing the  earth  firmly  about  them.  It  is  especially  important 
to  tamp  the  earth  very  firm  about  the  bottom  of  the  post 
and  just  at  the  surface  of  the  ground,  as  these  are  the  two 
places  on  which  the  strain  comes.  Corner  posts  often  need 
short  pieces  of  plank  spiked  on  them  near  the  bottom,  to 
keep  the  strain  of  the  wire  from  pulling  them  out  of  the 
ground.     See  Figure  125. 

Woven  Wire. — Woven  wire  makes  a  much  more  desir- 
able fence  than  barbed  wire,  as  there  is  no  danger  of  animals' 
being  injured  in  it  and  it  will  serve  for  hogs  and  sheep  as 
well  as  for  cattle  and  horses.  It  is  considerably  more  ex- 
pensive than  barbed  wire,  especially  if  only  cattle  are  to 
be  enclosed. 

Stretching  Wire. — If  corner  posts  are  firmly  set,  it  is 
comparatively  easy  to  stretch  either  barbed  or  woven  wire. 
The  wire  is  fastened  firmly  to  the  post  at  one  end  of  the 
line,  then  strung  out  and  stretched.  A  great  deal  of  time 
can  be  saved  by  arranging  to  reel  out  two  wires  at  once. 
To  do  this,  put  two  spools  of  wire  side  by  side  on  a  rod  or 
crowbar  in  the  rear  end  of  the  wagon,  fasten  the  two  wires 


282 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


and  drive  ahead,  the  same  as  when  stretching  one  wire. 
Always  stretch  the  top  wire  first,  as  you  thus  avoid  tangling 
when  the  other  wires  are  stretched. 

There  are  several  good  wire  stretchers  on  the  market. 
If  one  has  no  other  means  handy,  barbed  wire  can  be  well 
stretched  by  bracing  a  wagon,  blocking  up  one  hind  wheel 
and  winding  the  wire  about  the  hub  by  turning  the  wheel 
by  hand.  A  stretcher  especially  made  for  the  purpose  is 
necessary  for  stretching  woven  wire. 

Cost  of  Fencing. — Any  farmer  should  be  able  to  tell 
approximately  how  much  it  costs  to  build  any  of  the  com- 
mon fences  on  his  farm.  It  is  the  annual  cost  per  acre 
that  is  important.     To  find  this,  one  must  first  take  into 

consideration  the  num- 
ber of  rods  of  fencing  re- 
quired to  enclose  an  acre. 
This,  of  course,  varies 
with  the  size  and  shape 
of  the  fields.  The  cost 
of  posts  and  wire  is 
known,  because  they  are 
usually  purchased.  If 
posts  are  cut  on  the  farm, 
the  cost  of  getting  them 
out  will  represent  their 
cost.  Labor  cost  in  setting  posts  and  stretching  wire  can 
be  found  by  experience  or  by  asking  others  who  have  built 
fences  under  similar  conditions.  When  one  knows  the  total 
cost  per  rod  for  a  fence,  and  the  number  of  rods  required 
to  enclose  an  acre,  one  can  tell  the  total  cost  per  acre. 
Questions: 

1.  For  what  reasons  should  corner  posts  be  well  braced? 

2.  Describe  an  easy  method  of  stretching  wire. 

3.  In  what  way  may  one  determine  the  cost  per  rod  of  fencing? 

4.  If  one  knows  the  cost  per  rod,  how  can  one  tell  the  annual 
cost  per  rod?     Per  acre? 

Arithmetic: 

1.  How  many  posts  are  required  to  build  80  rods  of  fence,  posts 
l}4  rods  apart?  What  are  they  worth  at  12c.  per  post?  What  is  the 
cost  per  rod  for  posts? 

2.  How  many  pounds  of  barbed  wire  are  required  to  build  80 
rods  of  3-wire  fence?     (A  single  barbed  wire  1  rod  long  weighs  about 


Figure  125. — A  corner  post  braced  one  way 
and  anchored  so  the  strain  of  the  wires 
will  not  pull  it  out. 


AORICULTURAL  EXOINEERiyO  283 

1  lb.)     What  is  the  cost  at  3c.  per  pound?      What  is  the  cost  of  such 
a  fence  per  rod  for  wire? 

3.  A  man  can  set  50  posts  in  10  hours.  How  long  will  it  take 
him  to  set  the  posts  in  80  rods  of  fence,  if  posts  are  13^  rods  apart? 
What  will  it  cost,  if  his  time  is  worth  18c.  per  hour?  WTiat  is  the  cost 
per  rod? 

4.  Two  men  and  a  team  (2  horses)  can  string,  stretch  and  staple 
80  rods  of  fence  (3  barbed  wires)  in  5  hours.  What  will  it  cost  if  a 
man's  time  is  worth  18c.  per  hour  and  a  horse's  time  is  worth  9c.  per 
hour?     What  will  it  cost  per  rod? 

5.  What,  then,  is  the  total  cost  per  rod  to  build  a  fence  as  above? 
(Include  posts,  setting  of  posts,  wire  and  stretching  of  wire,  as  found 
in  above  examples.) 

Exercises: 

1.  Each  pupil  should  describe  the  road  from  his  home  to  his  county 
seat  and  tell  what  he  thinks  should  be  done  to  improve  it. 

2.  Make  a  map  of  a  farm,  showing  directior  of  flow  of  water 
and  indicating  places  that  may  need  drainage. 

3.  Make  a  Hst  of  every  piece  of  machinery  on  your  farm.  State 
what  it  cost,  what  it  probably  costs  a  year  for  repairs  and  how  long 
it  is  likely  to  last.     Average  the  total  cost. 

4.  Each  pupil  should  describe  what  he  regards  as  the  best  bam 
in  the  district  and  tell  what  particular  features  commend  it. 

5.  How  many  different  kinds  of  silos  are  in  the  district  and  what 
kinds  of  silage  are  stored  in  them? 

6.  Notice  the  fences  you  see,  in  what  respects  they  are  good 
and  how  also  they  are  poor  and  might  be  improYod. 


CHAPTER  XXI 
COMMUNITY  ACTIVITIES 

BOTS'  AND  GIRLS'  CLUBS 

Importance. — Boys'  and  girls'  clubs  are  becoming  an 
important  factor  in  the  teaching  of  industrial  subjects  in 
both  rural  and  city  schools.  A  club  tends  to  capitalize  or 
at  least  make  use  of  the  combined  interest  and  enthusiasm 
that  comes  from  team  play.  It  also  makes  use  of  one  of 
the  most  important  principles  in  education  which  is  to  find 
some  means  of  arousing  in  the  student  a  feeling  that  he 
needs  or  wants  information  that  it  is  desired  to  impart  to 
him.  The  average  student  can  learn  a  thing  that  he  feels 
that  he  needs  at  the  time  to  know  much  more  quickly  than 
he  can  learn  the  same  thing  when  he  does  not  need  the 
information  at  the  time,  and  feels  that  it  is  more  or  less 
useless.  The  club  undertakes  to  do  something,  and  each 
member  agrees  to  do  his  part.  Each  one  is  encouraged  to 
go  on  with  the  work,  because  he  knows  others  are  doing  it, 
and  are  expecting  him  to  do  it.  Having  before  him  a  task 
that  he  wants  to  accomplish,  he  is  receptive  for  anything 
that  will  help  him  to  accomplish  it.  A  bit  of  information 
or  help  just  at  the  right  time  is  appreciated  and  used. 

Schools  are  the  natural  centers  for  boys'  and  girls'  clubs 
and  their  activities.  The  teacher  is  the  natural  leader,  and 
can  be  very  helpful  in  organizing  and  directing  the  club. 
The  club  can  be  of  immense  help  to  the  teacher.  It  helps 
to  add  to  the  school  spirit  and  loyalty;  it  teaches  citizen- 
ship and  aids  in  discipline;  it  furnishes  the  needed  stimulus 
to  study;  it  helps  to  connect  the  school  with  the  activities 
of  the  home,  and  shows  the  boys  and  girls  that  things  learned 
in  school  are  associated  with  and  useful  in  everyday   life. 

Teachers  are  not  all  qualified,  or  feel  that  they  are  not, 
to  teach  some  of  the  industrial  subjects  that  are  now  quite 
generally  required  in  schools;  but  the  average  rural  school 
teacher  is  now  quahfied  to  teach  elementary  agriculture  and 
need  not  hesitate  to  take  up  and  study  with  boys  and  girls 


COMMUNITY  ACTIVITIES 


285 


the  rules  and  instructions  now  available  in  every  state  in 
the  Union  regarding  the  acre-yield  corn  contests,  the  bread- 
baking  contest,  the  tomato-growing  and  canning  contest, 
or  the  pig,  calf  or  poultry  contest.  Reading  over  these 
instructions  with  her  club  members  and  helping  them  to 
understand  them  will  maintain  interest  and  give  assistance 


Figure  126. — ^A  bosrs*  and  girls'  farm  club. 

to  the  club  members  in  their  meetings  and  other  activities. 
The  instructions  given  in  connection  with  the  various  club 
activities  outline  simply  and  clearly  the  best  known  farm 
practices  for  the  community  or  state,  practices  that  are 
usually  better  than  the  average  for  the  community.  The 
club  provides  a  means  for  studying  these  instructions  and 
for  putting  them  into  practice.  When  boys  or  girls  have 
carried  out  the  instruction  given  for  the  club  project,  they 
have  accomplished  something  exceptional,  and  have  learned 
important  facts  that  will  be  useful  to  them  as  long  as  they  live. 

18— 


286  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Time  is  limited  in  rural  schools,  but  a  good  live  boys' 
and  girls'  club  tends  to  make  better  use  of  the  time  rather 
than  to  take  valuable  time  needed  for  other  classes.  The 
club  usually  meets  Friday  afternoon  once  or  twice  a  month. 
The  time  is  put  to  good  use,  and  it  encourages  so  much 
work  outside  school  hours  that  the  time  spent  in  study  is 
increased  rather  than  lessened.  A  great  deal  of  the  club 
work  requires  reading,  composition  writing  and  arithmetic, 
which  subjects  are  better  taught  in  connection  with  the 
club  activities,  because. the  pupils  actually  use  them. 


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Figure  127. — A  girls'  sewing  club. 

Prizes. — Most  of  the  club  work  has  been  based  on  prizes. 
There  is  a  growing  tendency  to  do  away  with  prizes, 
or  at  least  with  large  prizes.  Most  pupils  will  compete  as 
strenuously  for  a  club  pin  or  a  blue  ribbon  in  a  club  project 
as  they  will  for  a  "headmark"  in  spelling  or  a  reward  of 
merit  for  good  behavior. 

Object  Acre. — Instead  of  large  cash  prizes,  it  has  been 
suggested  that  the  boys  and  girls  in  a  community  decide 
on  something  they  would  each  like  to  do,  such  as  to  make 
a  trip  to  the  State  Fair,  take  a  sight-seeing  trip  to  Niagara 
or  Yellowstone,  or  take  a  term  or  course  at  some  institution 
of  learning.  When  the  thing  to  be  desired  is  determined 
upon  by  the  club,  then  each  member  undertakes  to  produce 


COMMUNITY  ACTIVITIES  287 

a  yield  of  sufficient  value  on  a  given  piece  of  ground  to 
pay  his  expenses.  In  this  way  each  member  has  a  chance 
to  win.  If  he  wins,  he  earns  his  own  prize;  if  he  loses,  he 
can  try  again  next  year. 

The  value  of  boys'  and  girls'*  club  work  can  hardly  be 
overestimated.  It  is  easily  adapted  to  the  needs  or  interests 
of  a  community,  is  easily  put  into  operation,  because  boys 
and  girls  are  naturally  hopeful  and  enthusiastic  and  it  very 
naturally  works  into  the  activities  of  the  school.  We  feel 
that  every  teacher  in  grade  or  rural  schools  should  give 
very  careful  thought  to  this  work.  A  suggestive  constitu- 
tion and  by-laws  are  submitted. 

CONSTITUTION 
Article  I.    Name 

The  name  of  this  organization  shall  be 

Boys'  and  Girls'  Club. 

Article  H.      Object 
The  object  of  this  club  shall  be  to  improve  ourselves,  our  school, 
our  homes,  and  our  community. 

Article  HI.      Membership 
Any  boy  or  girl  in  this  district  between  the  ages  of  10  and  18 
years  may  become  a  member  of  this  club  by  signing  the  constitution. 
Article  IV.     Officers 
The  officers  shall  consist  of  a  president,  vice-president,  secretary, 
and  treasurer,  who  shall  perform  the  usual  duties  of  such  officers. 
Article  V.     Meetings 
The  regular  meetings  shall  be  held  at  the  schoolhouse  the  last  Fri- 
day of  each  month  during  the  school  term,  unless  otherwise  voted. 
Article  VI.    Amendments 
This  constitution  may  be  amended  at  any  regular  meeting  by  a 
two-thirds  vote  cast. 

By-Laws 
Section  1.     The  club  motto  shall  be  "To  make  the  Best  Better." 
Section  2.     The  officers  of  the  club  shall  be  elected  by  ballot  at 
the  first  regular  meeting  of  each  school  term,  and  shall  hold  office 
until  their  successors  have  been  elected  and  qualified. 

Section  3.     The  following  order  of  business  shall  be  followed  at 
regular  club  meetings: 

Roll  call  by  secretary. 

Reading  of  minutes  of  previous  meeting. 

Reports  of  committees. 

Unfinished  business. 

New  business. 

Program. 

Adjournment. 


288  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Questions: 

1.  What  are  some  of  the  things  a  boys'  and  girls'  club  may  do? 

2.  Why  should  boys'  and  girls'  clubs  be  promoted  by  the  school? 

3.  What  do  you  think  of  the  idea  of  the  object  acre?  What 
could  you  grow  that  would  enable  you  to  take  a  trip  to  the  State  Fair? 

Arithmetic: 

1.  If  one  produced  100  bus.  of  corn  per  acre  and  sold  25  bus.  for 
seed  at  $3  per  bushel,  and  the  balance  at  45c.  per  bushel,  what  would 
be  the  total  value  of  the  crop? 

2.  If  one  produced  300  bus.  of  onions  on  ^  acre,  how  much 
would  they  be  worth  at  60c.  per  bushel? 

3.  If  one  produced  200  bus.  of  potatoes  per  acre  on  5  acres,  and 
sold  them  at  50c.  per  bushel,  how  much  money  would  one  have? 

FARMERS'  CLX7BS 

A  Farmers'  Club  is  an  organization  of  the  people  in  any 
community  for  the  improvement  of  themselves,  their  homes 
and  their  community.  It  should  include  in  its  member- 
ship the  whole  family,  men,  women  and  children.  Two  or 
more  families  may  constitute  a  successful  farmers'  club; 
but  it  is  best,  where  possible,  to  include  all  the  people  in 
the  community.  A  rural  school  district  is  a  suitable  terri- 
tory to  be  covered  by  a  farmers'  club.  Meetings  are  held 
in  the  homes  of  the  members,  in  town  halls  or  in  school- 
houses.  There  are  many  advantages  in  having  the  meet- 
ings at  the  homes  of  the  members  wherever  it  is  practical 
to  do  so.  The  territory  should  be  small  enough  so  that  all 
its  members  can  easily  convene. 

Advantages. — A  good,  active  farmers'  club  will  do  for 
a  rural  community  just  what  a  good,  active  commercial 
club  will  do  for  a  village  or  city;  namely,  it  will  tend  to 
secure  the  united  influence  of  the  community  to  bring  about 
any  desired  improvement,  and,  further,  it  will  unite  the 
community  to  oppose  anything  that  is  not  for  its  best 
interests.  We  can  conceive  of  no  way  in  which  a  farniers' 
club  can  be  detrimental  to  a  community,  while  we  believe 
that  there  are  at  least  four  ways  in  which  it  may  be  help- 
ful: (1)  socially,  (2)  educationally,  (3)  inspirationally,  and 
(4)  financially. 

Social  Advantages. — People  are  essentially  social  beings. 
They  are  not  usually  happy  when  isolated,  and  do  not 
develop  properly  except  in  groups.  Life  on  the  farm  tends 
to  keep  people  too  much  to  themselves.    A  farmers'  club 


COMMUXITY  ACTIVITIES  2«l» 

that  will  bring  the  people  together  monthly  or  semi-monthly 
furnishes  a  very  desirable  change  from  the  ordinary  routine 
of  farm  life.  Every  one  is  interested  in  making  the  most 
of  oneself  and  one's  life.  An  important  part  of  one's  pleasure 
and  development  comes  from  meeting  people  and  gaining 
the  ability  to  mingle  with  them  freely,  without  which  one 
cannot  appear  at  one's  best  or  get  the  most  out  of  life, 
either  socially  or  in  a  business  way. 

One  needs  to  get  away  from  one's  own  work  and  home 
and  get  an  opportunity  to  see  things  from  a  different 
angle.  As  a  rule,  a  man  is  better  satisfied  with  his  own 
conditions  when  he  sees  how  others  live  and  do.  A  better 
acquaintance  with  people  usually  results  in  more  tolerance 
for  their  shortcomings.  Many  times,  when  left  to  ourselves, 
we  begin  to  think  unkindly  of  our  neighbors  and  really 
believe  they  are  not  what  they  should  be.  Usually  a  closer 
acquaintance  and  a  clearer  knowledge  of  their  trials  and 
struggles  shows  us  that  they  are  really  better  than  we  had 
thought  them  to  be.  A  community  in  which  all  are  inter- 
ested in  one  another,  know  one  another,  and  are  boosting 
for  one  another  and  for  the  community,  is  a  much  better 
place  in  which  to  live  than  a  community  in  which  there  is 
mutual  distrust.  As  a  rule,  knowledge  of  one  another 
increases  confidence.  Play  is  an  important  part  of  one's 
life.  One  cannot  do  one's  best,  if  every  minute  is  devoted 
to  work.  Relaxation  and  pleasure  are  absolutely  essential 
to  good  living.  Clubs  that  will  bring  some  entertainment) 
social  gatherings,  or  other  means  of  amusement  into  the 
community,  are  very  important. 

Educational  Advantages. — A  good  farmers'  club  may  be 
of  the  greatest  possible  influence  in  broadening  the  knowledge 
of  its  members.  The  community  has  more  information 
than  any  one  of  its  members,  and  the  club  meeting  tends 
to  give  each  member  the  benefit  of  the  knowledge  and  ex- 
perience of  every  other  member. 

Being  called  upon  to  present  various  topics  at  club 
meetings  stimulates  study.  No  one  farm  or  community 
has  in  it  all  that  is  good.  Being  forced  to  study  what  is 
being  done  in  other  places  increases  the  general  knowledge 
of  the  community  and  of  each  individual  therein. 

10— 


290 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


A  farmers'  club  may  increase  the  general  knowledge  of 
its  members  by  bringing  in  outside  talent.  Business  and 
professional  men  from  the  nearby  towns  or  villages  can  be 
prevailed  upon  to  address  the  club.  Speakers  from  the 
University  or  the  College  of  Agriculture  and  other  public 
institutions  may  be  secured  occasionally  to  bring  in  outside 
ideas  and  inspiration. 

Inspiration. — A  discussion  of  the  various  problems  of 
interest  to  the  community  always  tends  to  stimulate  every 
good,  live  citizen  to  desire  better  things,  and  to  make  a 


Figure  128. — A  co-operative  laundry  in  connection  with  a  co-operative  creamery. 

greater  effort  to  secure  them.  Anyone  who  has  confidence 
in  people  and  in  the  community  believes  that  almost  all  good 
things  are  possible,  if  the  necessary  effort  and  determination 
are  put  forth  to  secure  them.  If  a  club  can  succeed  in 
arousing  in  its  members  a  desire  and  determination  for 
improvement  in  the  community,  better  schools,  better  roads, 
better  homes,  better  live  stock,  better  farms,  and  better 
people  are  all  possible. 

Financial  Advantages. — Business  is  now  done  in  this 
country  on  a  large  scale.     Millions  of  dollars  and  thousands 


COMMUNITY  ACTIVITIES  291 

of  people  are  used  in  great  enterprises.  A  farmer  usually 
deals  with  people  representing  business  interests  larger  than 
his  own.  As  a  rule,  in  business  enterprises  he  deals  with 
men  who  have  the  advantage,  simply  because  the  trans- 
action means  more  to  the  farmer  than  to  the  other  fellow 
with  his  wider  field.  For  example,  a  potato  buyer  in  a 
community  may  buy  potatoes  from  two  hundred  farmers. 
What  is  100  per  cent  of  the  farmer's  business  in  potatoes 
represents  one  half  of  one  per  cent  of  the  potato  buyer's 
business.  Consequently,  a  deal  that  means  100  per  cent 
to  the  farmer  means  one  half  of  one  per  cent  to  the  potato 
buyer,  and  because  the  deal  means  very  little  to  the  buyer 
and  very  much  to  the  farmer,  the  farmer  is  at  a  disadvan- 
tage. Exactly  the  same  condition  prevails  in  purchasing 
supplies.  The  farmer  is  handicapped  on  account  of  the 
small  amount  of  business  he  is  doing.  A  farmer  who  can 
use  two  dozen  machines  of  one  kind  can  purchase  them 
more  cheaply  than  the  man  who  uses  but  one.  The  farmer 
who  can  sell  many  carloads  of  farm  products  of  one  class 
can  get  a  better  price  for  his  products  than  the  one  who  has 
only  a  wagonload  or  less  to  market. 

If  the  products  of  a  community,  such  as  grain,  potatoes 
and  live  stock,  can  be  made  uniform  by  co-operation  among 
the  members  of  the  community  in  production,  and  then 
these  larger  quantities  of  uniform  products  can  be  sold  by 
one  man,  the  same  advantages  that  come  to  the  large 
farmer,  or  have  come  to  the  dairy  industry,  can  be  secured 
in  other  enterprises  on  the  farm. 

Co-operation. — A  farmers'  club  is  the  logical  forerunner 
of  co-operation.  In  the  first  place,  it  gets  the  people  of  a 
community  acquainted  and  increases  the  confidence  of  one 
in  another.  This  mutual  confidence  is  absolutely  essential 
to  successful  co-operation.  In  the  second  place,  it  provides 
a  logical  means  for  studying  carefully  any  enterprise  that, 
it  is  proposed  to  undertake  co-operatively,  so  that 
impractical  undertakings  are  likely  to  be  avoided.  We  be- 
Heve  the  farmers'  club  is  a  vital  factor  in  promoting  co- 
operation, because  it  is  not  organized  to  defeat  any  particular 
class  of  people,  but  to  study  intelligently  any  problem  that 
may  come  up,  and  to  execute  it  effectively. 


292  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

SUGGESTED  CONSTITUTION  AND  BY-LAWS 

Article  I.    Name  and  Object 

Section  1.  The  name  of  this  association  shall  be  the  Farmers' 
Club  of 

Section  2.  The  object  of  this  association  shall  be  to  improve  its 
members,  their  farms,  and  their  community. 

Article  11.     Membership 

Section  1.  Anyone  in  good  standing  may  become  a  member  of 
this  club  by  paying  the  annual  fee  of  $ 

Section  2.  When  the  head  of  a  family  joins  the  club  any  member 
of  his  family  may  become  an  active  member  without  paying  additional 
fees.  - 

Section  3.     One  third  of  the  active  members  shall  constitute  a 
quorum  for  doing  business  at  any  regular  meeting. 
Article  HI.     Officers 

Section  1.  The  officers  of  this  association  shall  consist  of  a  presi- 
dent, a  vice  president,  a  secretary,  and  a  treasurer.  They  shall  be 
chosen  for  their  business  ability  rather  than  their  popularity. 

Section  2.  The  officers  of  the  club  become  the  executive  board 
and  shall  constitute  the  program  committee. 

Section  3.  The  executive  board  may  call  a  special  metting  at 
any  time  by  giving  three  days'  written  notice. 

Section  4.  The  officers  of  this  association  shall  be  elected  annu- 
ally, and  by  ballot,  at  the  regular  annual  business  meeting,  and  shall 
hold  office  until  their  successors  have  been  elected  and  qualified. 

Article  IV.     Meetings 

The  club  shall  hold  an  annual  meeting  the 

Regular  meetings  of  this  club  shall  be  held  on  the of 

each  month  at  the  home  of  some  member  or  at  such  place  as  shall  be 
designated  at  a  previous  meeting,  or  by  the  executive  board. 
Article  V.    Amendments 

This  constitution  may  be  amended  at  any  regular  meeting  by  a 
two  thirds  vote  of  the  active  members. 

By-Laws 

Section  1.  The  duties  of  each  officer  named  in  the  constitution 
shall  be  such  as  Usually  pertain  to  his  position. 

Section  2.  All  other  duties  shall  be  performed  by  the  executive 
and  program  committees. 

Section  3.  The  club  shall  aid  and  further  business  associations 
among  its  members;  particularly  such  associations  as  pertain  to  the 

{mrchase  of  necessary  supplies,  and  the  purchase  and  management  of 
ive  stock  and  agricultural  and  garden  products. 

Section  4.  From  time  to  time  the  club  shall  give  entertainments 
and  hold  meetings  under  direction  of  the  program  committee,  for  the 
benefit  of  its  members  and  of  those  whom  they  may  invite  to  attend. 
Section  5.  Any  members,  after  due  hearing,  may  be  expelled 
from  the  club  by  a  majority  vote  of  active  members  at  any  meeting, 
without  a  refund  of  dues. 


COMMUNITY  ACTIVITIES  293 

Section  6.     Thase  by-laws  may  be  amended  at  any  regular  meet- 
ing by  a  majority  vote  of  active  members  upon  one  month's  written 
notice. 
Questions: 

1.  What  is  a  farmers'  club?  Name  at  least  four  ways  in  which 
a  club  may  be  helpful  in  a  community. 

2.  How  may  a  farmers'  club  benefit  a  community  socially? 

3.  How  may  a  farmers'  club  benefit  a  community  educationally? 
Arithmetic: 

1.  If  there  are  200  farms  tributary  to  a  town,  each  worth  $12,000 
what  is  their  combined  worth? 

2.  If  200  farms  tributary  to  a  town  produce  $1,500  worth  of 
farm  products,  what  is  the  total  value  of  the  products  to  be  marketed? 

3.  If  each  of  200  farms  purchase  $1,000  of  supplies,  what  is  the 
total  amount  of  their  purchases? 

CO-OPERATION 

Meaning  of  Co-operation. — Every  farm  girl  and  boy 
should  know  the  meaning  of  the  term  co-operation  and 
realize  its  full  significance.  Co-operation  means  united 
effort  or,  as  Prof.  J.  A.  Vye  has  put  it,  ''Union  of  the  powers 
of  the  common  people  for  the  common  good."  The  very 
best  example  we  have  of  true  and  ideal  co-operation  is  in 
the  family.  Here  each  member  works  for  the  common 
good,  makes  sacrifices  for  the  rest,  and  shares  in  the  joys 
and  successes  of  the  other  members.  In  our  business  rela- 
tions with  neighbors  and  friends  we  cannot  expect  such 
complete  co-operation.  But,  under  present  conditions  of 
business,  it  is  possible  for  people  to  co-operate  or  work 
together  to  their  mutual  advantage,  even  if  they  are  prompt- 
ed only  by  advantage  to  themselves  and  are  without  the 
generous  desire  to  help  others. 

Obstacles  to  Co-operation. — One  of  the  great  obstacles 
to  co-operation  among  farmers  is  the  old  notion  that  a 
farmer  is  the  most  independent  man  on  earth.  The  farmer 
is  independent  in  some  ways.  He  is  his  own  employer, 
may  go  to  work  an  hour  late  or  quit  an  hour  early  occasion- 
ally without  asking  anyone's  permission;  but  he  is  dependent 
on  others  to  buy  his  products;  and,  to  get  his  supplies,  he 
is  dependent  on  manufacturers,  transportation  companies 
and  merchants. 

Need  of  Co-operation. — In  the  majority  of  cases  the 
weaker  of  two  persons  making  a  trade  comes  out  second 


294  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

best.  The  farmer,  in  selling  his  products  and  in  buying  his 
supplies,  usually  deals  with  large  concerns;  consequently 
he  very  often  gets  the  worst  of  the  bargain.  This  result  is 
but  natural,  for  the  business  of  the  average  farmer  amounts 
to  but  very  little  to  the  buyer  of  stock  or  grain,  and,  while 
the  sale  may  mean  a  great  deal  to  the  farmer,  it  means 
very  little  to  the  buyer.  Likewise,  a  dealer  selling  machin- 
ery, lumber  or  other  supplies  does  not  care  a  great  deal 
about  the  business  of  one  farmer,  but  the  farmer  is  often 
under  the  necessity  of  buying  of  that  particular  dealer. 
In  such  cases  it  is  quite  evident  that  the  farmer  is  at  a 
disadvantage. 

Advantages  of  Co-operation. — If,  however,  several  farm- 
ers unite  and  offer  for  sale  a  large  amount  of  grain,  stock, 
or  other  products,  there  is  business  enough  represented  in 
handling  this  product  to  attract  several  buyers,  and,  as  a 
consequence,  a  better  price  is  obtained.  Likewise,  if  a 
number  of  farmers  find  that  they  need  among  them  several 
machines  of  different  kinds  (probably  a  few  thousand  dollars' 
worth)  and  they  go  to  a  dealer  to  buy,  he  is  anxious  to  get 
the  large  order  and  will  make  some  reduction  in  price  in 
order  to  get  it.  Such  combination  of  interests  tends  to 
equalize  the  strength  on  the  two  sides  of  the  bargain,  and, 
as  a  consequence,  to  equalize  the  benefits  of  the  trade. 

Co-operative  Production. — Not  only  can  farmers  get 
better  prices  for  the  same  product  by  seUing  in  large  quanti- 
ties, but  they  can  also  offer,  by  working  together,  products 
that  are  worth  much  more.  For  example,  if  several  farmers 
are  raising  horses,  they  can  get  better  prices  for  them,  if 
they  all  raise  horses  of  the  same  type  and  breed.  It  is 
easier  in  such  a  case  for  a  purchaser  to  get  a  matched  team, 
and  where  several  horses  can  be  bought  in  one  neighborhood, 
a  buyer  can  afford  to  pay  a  better  price  for  them  than  he 
could  if  he  had  to  search  several  neighborhoods,  because  he 
is  saved  the  time  and  expense  of  searching. 

There  are  great  possibilities  for  farmers  to  benefit  them- 
selves materially  by  closer  co-operation  in  many  of  their 
farming  and  business  enterprises.  Several  farmers  working 
together  greatly  increase  their  own  strength  and  resources, 
and  better  equip  themselves  to  meet  existing  conditions. 


COMMUNITY  ACTIVITIES  2^5 

They  can  pub  on  the  market  large  quantities  of  superior 
and  uniform  products  in  such  condition  and  quantity  as  to 
assure  top  prices. 
Questions: 

1.  What  do  you  understand  "co-operation"  to  mean? 

2.  Where  is  the  best  example  of  co-operation  found? 

3.  What  is  a  great  obstacle  to  co-operation  among  farmers? 

4.  Why  does  a  farmer  trading  with  a  large  concern  often  get  the 
worst  of  the  bargain? 

5.  Why  are  a  number  of  farmers,  buying  or  selling  together 
almost  sure  to  get  better  prices? 

6.  Why  can  a  buyer  afford  to  pay  more  when  large  and  uniform 
quantities  of  any  one  thing  can  be  found  in  a  neighborhood? 
Arithmetic: 

1.  Thirty  farmers  want  $100  worth  of  machinery  each.  How 
many  dollars'  worth  of  machinery  do  they  all  want?  How  much 
would  they  save,  if  they  could  get  10%  discount?  If  they  could  get 
20%  discount? 

2.  A  cattle  buyer,  to  get  a  carload  of  cattle,  spends  3  days, 
paying  $5  per  day  for  livery  and  $2  per  day  for  hotel  accommodations. 
His  time  is  worth  $5  per  day.  How  much  does  it  cost  him  in  time  and 
expense?  How  much  does  this  expense  amount  to  per  head,  if  he 
buys  18  head? 

3.  If  a  car  of  uniform  cattle,  weighing  24,000  lbs.,  sell  for  50c. 
per  100  lbs.  more  than  mixed  cattle,  how  much  more  are  they  worth 
than  a  car  of  mixed  cattle? 

MARKETING  BUTTER 

Co-operative  Creamery. — One  of  the  best  examples  of 
co-operation  among  farmers,  in  the  Northwest,  is  the  co- 
operative creamery;  and  the  results  should  be  sufficient  to 
encourage  effort  along  other  lines. 

Before  the  introduction  of  the  co-operative  creamery, 
every  farm  made  its  own  butter.  In  most  cases  poor 
facilities  were  at  hand  for  the  work,  and,  as  a  consequence, 
a  product  often  not  first-class,  and  never  uniform,  was  pro- 
duced. The  result  was  that  butter  sold  at  a  very  low  price, 
often  6c.  to  10c.  per  pound.  Many  farmers  produced  good 
butter,  but  very  few  farms  were  so  situated  as  to  be  able 
to  sell  their  product  for  a  good  price.  Few  farms  had  a 
constant  or  uniform  supply  of  butter.  It  w£is  impossible 
for  a  merchant  to  work  up  a  trade  for  the  product  from  a 
certain  farm  or  of  a  certain  quality,  because  he  could  not 
be  sure  of  getting  the  butter  for  any  definite  length  of  time. 


296  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

The  result  of  this  condition  was  that  merchants  in  the 
small  towns  paid  about  the  same  price  for  all  butter, 
mixed  it  and  sold  it  at  a  low  price.  Consequently  they 
could  afford  to  pay  but  a  low  price  for  it. 

Principles  of  Marketing. — There  are  three  conditions 
which  have  a  tendency  to  increase  the  price  of  a  staple 
product,  and,  as  these  conditions  are  well  illustrated  by 
our  creameries,  we  mention  them  here. 

A  large  quantity  of  a  desirable  product  in  one  place 
attracts  several  buyers,  thus  increasing  competition  and  the 


Figure  129. — A  farmers*  co-operative  creamery  where  a  large  quantity  of  a  uniform 
product  is  produced  and  offered  for  sale  in  an  attractive  and  business-like  manner. 

price.  A  uniformly  good  product  and  a  constant  supply 
enables  a  dealer  to  build  up  a  demand  for  something  good; 
hence  he  can  pay  a  better  price  for  it.  Bringing  the  buyer 
to  the  product,  instead  of  sending  the  product  to  the  buyer, 
tends  to  increase  the  price,  because  it  enables  the  seller  to 
refuse  the  price  offered  and  wait  for  a  better  offer,  which  he 
can  not  always  do,  if  he  has  delivered  his  product. 

The  average  co-operative  creamery  produces  from 
$20,000  to  $50,000  worth  of  butter  in  a  year.  This  amount 
naturally  attracts  buyers  who  are  anxious  to  handle  the 
large  product.  Creameries  turn  out  a  fairly  uniform  quality 
of  butter,  which  qualification  has  been  a  very  strong  factor 
in  increasing  the  demand  and  the  price  for  creamery  butter. 


COMMUNITY  ACTIVITIES  297 

On  account  of  the  large  and  uniform  product,  buyers  come 
or  send  to  the  creamery;  consequently  the  creamery  manager 
can  sell  or  hold  the  product  in  the  refrigerator  until  he  gets 
the  ofifer  he  regards  as  fair.  These  same  principles  hold 
true  in  the  marketing  of  any  farm  product. 

Why  Some  Creameries  Fail. — That  a  well  managed  and 
weU  patronized  co-operative  creamery  can  compete  success- 
fully with  any  other  known  plant,  in  the  manufacture  of 
butter,  has  been  amply  proved.  Still  there  are  now  many 
creameries  that  are  being  injured,  and  a  few  of  them  closed, 
by  the  competition  of  the  large  privately  owned  creameries 
called  "centralizers."  These  ''centralizers"  have  their  cream 
shipped  from  any  place  they  can  get  it.  To  get  cream 
where  there  is  a  local  creamery,  they  may  offer  a  better 
price  than  the  local  creamery  can  pay,  or  they  may  get  cream 
at  the  same  price  from  a  few  of  its  dissatisfied  patrons. 

Losing  any  considerable  amount  of  cream  greatly  weak- 
ens the  local  plant,  and  it  cannot  pay  as  much  for  butter- 
fat  as  it  had  been  paying,  because  the  butter  maker's  salary 
and  other  expenses  must  be  paid  out  of  a  smaller  output. 
Thus  the  local  plant  is  forced  to  run  at  a  loss  or  to  close. 

Support  Local  Creamery. — The  closing  of  the  local 
creamery  would  not  be  so  undesirable,  if  the  centraUzers 
continued  to  pay  good  prices  for  cream;  but  they  cannot  as 
a  rule  continue  to  pay  as  good  prices  as  a  well  managed 
and  well  patronized  co-operative  plant,  because  they  have 
difficulty  in  getting  cream  of  as  good  quality  as  the  co-op- 
erative creamery  can  obtain;  and  consequently  cannot  make 
as  uniformly  good  butter. 

It  generally  happens  that  when  the  local  creamery  is 
closed,  the  centralizer,  being  relieved  of  competition,  re- 
duces the  price  paid  for  cream  below  that  paid  by  the  best 
co-operative  plants. 

For  their  own  interests  as  well  as  the  interests  of  the 
community,  it  pays  patrons  of  a  co-operative  creamery  to 
stand  by  their  own  plant  and  not  be  lured  away  by  tempor- 
ary high  prices,  or  high  tests,  or  by  jealousy  and  spite;  for 
the  chances  are  that,  as  soon  as  the  local  creamery  is  closed, 
they  will  get  less  for  butter-fat  than  their  own  creamery 
can  pay  them,  if  they  patronize  it. 


298  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM-  PRACTICE 

Questions: 

1.  What  was  the  cause  of  the  low  price  formerly  paid  for  butter? 

2.  Give  the  three  principles  of  successful  marketing. 

3.  Why  does  a  co-operative  creamery  sometimes  fail? 

Arithmetic: 

1.  If  a  farmer  keeps  12  cows  and  each  produces  3^  lb.  of  butter- 
fat  per  day,  how  many  pounds  of  butter-fat  will  he  get  per  week? 
How  many  pounds  of  25%  cream  will  he  get  per  week?  (1  lb.  of  butter- 
fat  will  make  4  lbs.  of  25%  cream.) 

2.  How  much  should  a  farmer  receive,  if  he  sells  168  lbs.  of  25% 
cream  at  30c.  per  pound  for  butter-fat? 

3.  How  much  less  would  he  receive  per  week  for  his  168  lbs. 
of  cream,  if  he  were  paid  but  27c.  per  pound  for  butter-fat?  If  he 
lost  $1.26  per  week,  how  much  would  he  lose  in  1  year? 

4.  How  much  less  would  he  receive,  if  he  were  paid  30c.  per 
pound,  but  his  168  lbs.  of  cream  tested  but  22%  butter-fat? 

MARKETING  EGGS 

Fresh  Eggs  Scarce  in  Cities. — It  is  no  easy  matter  for 
people  in  town  to  secure  good,  fresh  eggs  whenever  they 
want  them.  Thousands  in  every  large  city  are  willing  to 
pay  good,  and  even  fancy  prices  for  eggs,  if  they  can  be  sure 
of  getting  a  strictly  first-class  article. 

How  Eggs  Are  Marketed. — The  common  way  of  hand- 
ling eggs  is  about  as  follows :  Eggs  are  gathered  at  irregular 
intervals,  then  about  once  a  week  they  are  taken  to  town 
and  sold  or  traded  to  a  grocer,  who  pays  one  price  for  all 
kinds  of  eggs — ^white,  brown,  small,  large,  dirty  or  clean — 
and  mixes  them  all  together.  Some  of  these  eggs  are  one 
day  old  and  some  are  two  weeks  or  more  old.  The  mer- 
chant sets  them  in  his  storeroom  with  ill-smelling  materials, 
as  meats,  oils,  etc.,  and  some  of  these  odors  are  absorbed 
by  the  eggs.  This  mixed  case,  with  other  similar  cases,  is 
then  sent  to  a  commission  merchant,  who  may  sell  them  to 
a  city  grocer  at  once  or  store  them.  After  more  or  less 
delay  these  eggs  are  offered  for  sale  to  city  people,  and  it 
is  little  wonder  that  the  housekeeper  hesitates  to  buy  them. 

One  Man's  Experience. — A  poultry  man  living  near  a 
large  city  sells  all  his  eggs  to  a  certain  grocer.  The  eggs 
are  gathered  every  day  and  the  date  stamped  on  each  egg. 
Eggs  of  uniform  size  and  color  are  put  in  small  cartons  or 
paper  cases,  holding  one  dozen  each.  The  cartons  are  sealed 
with  a  label  on  which  is  printed  a  statement  that  the  eggs 


COMMUNITY  ACTIVITIES 


299 


are  guaranteed  to  be  strictly  fresh,  and  if  any  bad  eggs  are 
found  the  producer  will  replace  them  with  good  ones.  These 
eggs  are  marketed  every  day,  and  sell  readily  at  35c.  per 
dozen,  when  eggs  marketed  in  the  ordinary  way  are  selling 
at  18c  to  20c.  per  dozen. 

The  Farmer's  Problem. — Merchants  who  buy,  handle 
and  sell  eggs  are  not  to  blame  for  the  low  price.     It  is  the 

lack  of  uniformity,  the 
unattractive  appearance, 
and  the  suspicion  that 
the  eggs  may  not  be 
fresh,  that  cause  the  low 
price.  The  farmer  with 
a  small  flock  of  chickens 
can  do  very  little  to  im- 
prove his  markets  alone, 
as  he  does  not  produce 
enough  eggs  to  enable 
him  to  interest  a  grocer 
or  to  work  up  a  special 
trade.  This  problem 
requires  co-operation. 
Marketing  Plan. — Sometimes  eggs  are  marketed  through 
the  local  creamery.  Each  patron  having  eggs  to  sell  has 
a  rubber  stamp,  with  which  he  stamps  on  each  egg  the 
name  of  the  local  creamery  and  his  own  number,  so  that, 
in  case  the  eggs  are  not  good,  they  can  be  traced  back  to  the 
right  farm.  Each  patron  delivers  his  eggs  to  the  creamery 
with  his  cream.  He  must  gather  them  every  day,  keep 
them  in  a  cool,  clean  place,  deliver  no  dirty  eggs  or  eggs 
more  than  a  week  old.  Thus  the  creamery  company  can 
guarantee  the  eggs  to  be  fresh,  clean  and  attractive.  Some 
have  been  shipping  eggs  in  this  way  for  years,  direct  to 
grocers  in  cities,  who  are  glad  to  handle  a  high-class  article. 
They  have  been  able  to  pay  their  patrons  from  four  to  ten 
cents  per  dozen  more  than  farmers  get  who  market  in  the 
old  way. 

Suggestions. — A  co-operative  creamery  is  an  excellent 
center  at  which  to  deliver  eggs,  where  several  farmers  are 
interested. 


Figure  130. — A  neat,  attractive  rnd  conven- 
ient way  to  handle  etgs. 


300  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

The  young  people  in  a  community  can  get  valuable 
experience  and  remuneration  by  taking  the  matter  up  and 
marketing  eggs  through  the  local  creamery. 

When  a  hen  lays  an  egg  in  a  clean  nest,  it  is  a  clean  egg. 
The  next  hen  coming  to  the  nest  may  soil  the  first  egg. 
Gather  eggs  often. 


THIS  PACKAGE  CONTAINS 


One  Dozen  Guaranteed  Fresh  Eggs 

IDEALIA  CREAMERY  CO. 

Manufacturers  and  Dealers 

Eggs,  Butter,  Pasteurized  Cream  and  Ice  Cream 


TOWN STATE 

NOTE — Eggs  in  this  package,  if  they  have  our  trade  marl(  on  them,  are  guaranteed 
to  be  strictly  fresh,  iclean  and  full  size,  and  if  ever  found  otherwise,  we  wish  you 
would  do  us  the  favor  to  report  it,  giving  number  found  on  the  egg. 

IDEALIA  CBEAMERY  CO. 


Figure  131. — Example  of  guarantee  placed  on  each  carton  of  eggs  sold  by  the 
creamery  plan  described  in  the  text. 

Grade  eggs  by  size  and  color,  and  put  in  neat,  clean 
cartons.  Ship  in  good,  strong  cases  direct  to  some  good 
merchant  in  the  nearest  large  city.  Interest  enough  persons 
so  that  several  cases  can  be  shipped  each  time,  and  ship  at 
least  twice  a  week. 

Try  to  interest  producers  in  one  good  breed  of  chickens. 
Eggs  will  be  uniform  and  more  attractive. 

Questions: 

1.  What  can  you  say  regarding  the  usual  method  of  marketing 
eggs? 

2.  Why  is  the  marketing  plan,  suggested  above,  better  than  the 
old  method? 

3.  In  what  way  may  the  people  of  a  community  market  their 
eggs  to  get  better  results  than  by  selling  them  to  the  local  grocer? 
Arithmetic: 

1,  If  each  farm  produces  30  eggs  per  day,  how  many  farms 
would  be  required  to  produce  enough  eggs  each  day  to  fill  a  30-dozen 
case? 

2.  How  many  farms,  producing  30  eggs  each  per  day,  would 
be  required  to  produce  enough  eggs,  so  that  five  cases,  holding  30  doz. 
each,  could  be  shipped  three  times  a  week? 


COMMUNITY  ACTIVITIES  301 

3.  If  each  farm  produces  30  eggs  per  day,  what  would  be  the 
gain  per  day  on  each  farm,  if  5c.  extra  per  doz.  could  be  secured?  If 
the  extra  trouble  in  keeping  the  eggs  clean  and  neatly  packing  them 
takes  15  minutes  each  day,  what  rate  per  hour  would  a  Doy  make  for 
doing  this  work? 

SCHOOL  GARDENS 

The  school  garden  is  a  plat  of  ground  in  connection  with 
the  school,  used  by  teachers  and  pupils  for  growing  crops 
as  a  part  of  their  school  work.  There  are  many  who  are 
enthusiastic  about  the  school  garden,  and  others  who  be- 
Ueve  it  has  only  a  Umited  place  as  a  means  of  teaching 
agriculture.  A  few  years  ago  much  was  done  to  encourage 
rural  school  teachers  and  principals  of  consolidated  schools 
to  maintain  gardens  in  connection  with  their  schools.  Many 
earnest  attempts  were  made  to  carry  out  the  suggestion, 
but  at  present  there  are  very  few  places  where  the  work  is 
continued. 

The  advantages  of  the  school  garden  are  that  it  furnishes 
actual  practice  in  the  various  operations  necessary  in  the 
growing  of  crops.  It  tends  to  call  the  pupil's  attention  to 
many  interesting  and  valuable  facts  about  soils,  plants, 
cultivation,  also  to  insects  and  diseases  affecting  plants.  It 
gives  a  practical  trend  to  the  agriculture  taught  Ut  the 
school,  and  provides  a  means  of  teaching  by  doing. 

The  disadvantages  are  that  the  conditions  of  cultiva  ing 
the  soil  and  handling  the  crops  are  entirely  unnatural.  It 
is  difficult  to  get  the  soil  in  good  condition  on  account  of 
lack  of  manure,  teams,  implements,  etc.  Usually  about 
June  1st  when  crops  and  weeds  are  growing  rapidly,  school 
is  out  and  no  one  is  left  to  care  for  the  garden.  By  fall  the 
garden  is  hkely  to  be  a  patch  of  weeds,  and  to  illustrate 
something  not  desirable  rather  than  something  valuable. 

Place  for  School  Gardens. — In  medium-sized  and  large 
towns,  where  there  are  many  pupils  from  homes  that  do 
not  or  can  not  have  gardens,  and  where  a  special  agricultural' 
instructor  or  gardener  can  be  employed  throughout  the 
crop-growing  season,  there  is  a  real  need  for  school  gardens. 
Under  such  conditions  the  school  garden  furnishes  concrete 
illustration  and  practice  in  soil  culture  and  the  growing  of 
crops  that  could  be  gotten  in  no  other  way,    It  also  fum- 


302  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

ishes  healthful,  useful  employment  for  a  few  hours  each 
week  to  boys  and  gMs  who  would  otherwise  be  running  the 
streets.  With  a  capable  instructor  in  charge,  such  a  school 
garden  may  be  very  valuable  as  a  field  laboratory  in  con- 
nection with  the  regular  classroom  work,  and  may  also  be 
used  to  good  advantage  to  furnish  much  material  to  be 
used  in  the  classroom  during  the  winter. 

Where  Not  Needed. — School  gardens  have  very  little 
place  in  connection  with  rural  schools,  consolidated  schools, 
or  village  schools  where  all  of  the  pupils  have  gardens  at 
home  and  some  useful  employment  during  vacation.  Under 
such  conditions  the  teacher  or  agricultural  instructor  can 
do  more  good  by  encouraging  home  gardens  and  by  aiding 
the  pupils  in  their  garden  work  at  home,  than  by  attempting 
to  handle  a  school  garden. 
Arithmetic: 

1.  What  is  a  school  garden? 

2.  Name  some  of  its  advantages  and  disadvantages. 

3.  Under  what  conditions  are  school  gardens  desirable?  Where 
undesirable? 

Arithmetic:  ^ 

1.  How  much  does  it  cost  to  plow  }4  acre  of  land,  if  it  take&a 
man  and  2  horses  1^  hours  to  do  it,  assuming  that  a  man's  time  is 
worth  20c.  per  hour  and  one  horse's  time  is  worth  10c.  per  hour? 

2.  How  much  does  it  coat  to  spade  up  3^  acre  of  land,  if  it  takes 
a  man  20  hours  to  do  it,    a  man's  time  being  worth  20c.  per  hour? 

3.  If  one  can  raise  600  bus.  of  onions  per  acre,  how  much  can 
one  raise  on  1  square  rod?  (There  are  160  sq.  rds.  in  an  acre.)  How 
much  would  the  onions  be  worth  at  60c.  per  bushel? 

!  COUNTY  AGENTS. 

A  New  Movement. — During  the  past  few  years  a  really 
new  movement  has  been  started  known  as  the  county  agent 
movement.  This  is  a  valuable  form  of  community  work. 
It  was  started  in  the  Southern  part  of  the  United  States 
when  the  cotton  boll  weevil  first  made  its  appearance  and 
threatened  to  destroy  the  whole  cotton  industry.  The 
cotton  planters  appealed  to  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  for  assistance  which  was  readily  given. 
Men  were  sent  into  several  communities,  and  gave  the  best 
assistance  available  in  combating  the  pest.  Their  efforts 
were  fruitful,  so  much  so  that  other  communities  asked 
for  the  same  help. 


COMMUNITY  ACTIVITIES  303 

Funds. — The  United  States  Department  had  not  funds 
enough  to  enable  them  to  extend  the  county  agent  work  as 
rapidly  as  it  was  sought.  Business  men  were  quick  to  see 
the  advantage  to  themselves  and  to  the  community  in 
saving  the  cotton  crop  and  readily  donated  money  to 
supplement  the  United  States  Department  funds.  The  work 
was  rapidly  extended  and  soon  took  on  the  form  of  county 
work,  usually  each  county  employing  its  own  agent  in  co- 
operation with  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
and  its  State  College  of  Agriculture.  This  work  spread  rap- 
idly over  the  South  and  later  was  started  in  the  North,  so 
that  in  1915  there  were  about  1,500  county  agents  employed 
in  the  United  States. 

The  work  of  a  county  agent  is  varied.  He  is  the  joint 
representative  of  the  people  in  a  county,  the  State  Col- 
lege of  Agriculture  and  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture.  It  is  the  agent's  business  to  do  everything  he 
can  for  the  improvement  of  agriculture,  business  and  con- 
ditions of  living  in  the  county  in  which  he  is  employed. 
He  brings  directly  to  the  service  of  the  farmers  and  others 
in  the  county  the  facilities  of  the  two  institutions  they 
have  created  and  are  maintaining,  namely,  their  own  state  Ex- 
periment Station  and  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture. 

Local  Information. — As  an  agent  travels  over  a  county  he 
finds  many  men  who  are  succeeding  in  their  particular  lines 
of  work.  One  man  has  made  a  success  of  corn  growing. 
Another  has  succeeded  in  fruit  raising.  Others  have  suc- 
ceeded with  dairying,  hogs,  poultry  or  with  beef  cattle. 
The  county  agent  with  his  thorough  training  and  experience 
is  able  to  study  the  methods  of  these  successful  men  and  to 
quickly  determine  the  principles  which  have  resulted  in 
their  successes.  He  is  then  in  position  to  inform  others  of 
these  successful  methods,  to  suggest  improvements  in  the 
general  methods  of  farming  in  the  county  and  in  many 
cases  induce  farmers  to  visit  the  farms  where  the  most  suc- 
cessful methods  are  being  practiced. 

The  county  agent  must  be  a  man  thoroughly  familiar 
with  farm  work  and  farm  life  from  having  lived  and  worked 
on  a  farm  for  years.     He  must  be  quite  famihar  with  the 


304  ELEMENTS  OF  FAdM  PRACTICE 

work  of  the  Colleges  of  Agriculture  and  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture.  He  must  be  a  man  who  can 
meet  people  easily  and  win  their  confidence  and  he  must 
also  be  a  natural  leader  and  organizer. 

A  Community  Movement. — The  success  of  the  county 
agent  movement  in  any  particular  county  depends  a  great 
deal  on  the  abiUty  of  the  man  selected  as  agent,  but  it 
depends  a  great  deal  more  on  the  people  in  the  community 
who  are  back  of  the  work.  The  work  is  bigger  than  any 
agent.  It  represents  a  desire  and  determination  on  the  part 
of  the  people  in  a  county  to  improve  and  an  organized  effort 
to  accomplish  their  desire.  Success  in  farming  is  becoming 
more  and  more  dependent  on  the  success  of  the  whole  com- 
munity. Good  roads,  good  schools,  good  markets,  good 
social  conditions  and  in  fact  good  facilities  for  the  improve- 
ment of  hve  stock  and  other  farm  products  can  be  had  only 
by  groups  of  people  working  together  in  an  organized  way. 

Questions: 

1.  What  can  you  say  of  the  county  agricultural  agent  movement 
in  your  state? 

2.  Why  is  it  important  that  the  citizens  of  a  county  be  organized 
before  employing  a  county  agricultural  agent? 

3.  In  what  ways  may  a  county  agent  be  of  help  to  the  farmers 
of  a  county? 

Arithmetic: 

1.  If  100,000  acres  of  corn  are  grown  in  a  county,  how  much  is 
it  worth  to  the  county  to  have  seed  com  that  will  yield  1  bushel  more 
per  acre  that  the  ordinary  seed  commonly  used,  if  corn  is  worth  45c. 
per  bushel? 

2.  If  by  proper  vaccination  a  county  agent  may  save  2,000 
hogs  in  a  county  from  loss  by  hog  cholera,  how  much  is  saved,  if  each 
hog  is  worth  $12? 

Exercises: 

1.  Boys  and  girls  of  each  community  should  organize  a  boys* 
and  girls'  club,  adopt  a  constitution,  elect  officers  and  take  up  some 
favorite  work. 

2.  What  farmers'  clubs  are  in  the  district?  What  are  their  ol> 
jects  and  advantages?     Do  any  farmers  not  belong?     Why? 

3.  How  are  the  farmers  marketing  their  eggs?  Can  you  sug- 
gest a  better  way? 

4.  Does  your  school  have  a  school  garden?  If  not,  do  the  pupils 
have  home  gardens  of  their  own?  Do  they  or  do  they  not  pay?  How 
do  you  know? 

5.  If  your  county  has  a  county  agricultural  agent,  what  are  some 
of  the  important  things  he  is  trying  to  do  or  have  done? 


CHAPTER   XXII 
THE  FARM  HOME 

WHAT  A  DESIRABLE  HOME  SHOULD  BE 

Pleasant  Surroundings. — Almost  every  one  admires  order, 
neatness  and  beauty  in  preference  to  their  opposites — dis- 
order, untidiness,  and  barrenness  or  lack  of  beauty.  A  farm 
seems  more  valuable,  if  the  yards  surrounding  the  house 
and  bam  are  clean,  neat  and  orderly.  If  one  sees  a  smooth, 
well  kept  lawn,  with  a  few  appropriate  shade  trees  and 
flowers,  one  feels  sure  that  here  is  prosperity,  or  here,  at 
least,  is  a  restful  home. 

In  cities  and  villages  considerable  attention  is  paid  to 
beautifying  the  lawns,  and  a  very  Uttle  effort  adds  an  ele- 
gance and  charm  to  an  otherwise  plain  home. 

Facilities. — The  farm  folk  may  not  have  much  time  to 
think  how  they  would  enjoy  these  things  or  to  establish 
and  keep  such  conditions,  but  there  are  many  things  that 
can  be  had  with  but  little  effort  and  expense,  and  many 
which  the  boys  and  girls  can  do.  In  the  country,  where 
there  is  plenty  of  room  for  a  lawn,  for  flowers,  ornamental 
shrubs  and  trees,  and  where  good  soil,  fertiHzer,  team  and 
machinery  for  keeping  up  a  lawn  are  available,  it  is  to  be 
regretted  that  these  possibilities  are  so  Uttle  reaUzed. 

Neatness. — The  first  step  for  the  boys  and  girls,  who 
are  anxious  to  aid  in  beautif3dng  their  homes,  is  to  keep 
things  as  neat  as  possible.  Every  boy  of  school  age  can 
move  a  pile  of  ashes,  if  the  ashes  during  the  winter  have 
been  piled  too  near  the  house.  Raking  the  chip  yard  is 
not  too  diflficult  for  the  average  boy.  Often  broken  dishes, 
tin  cans,  old  shoes,  etc.,  have  been  cast  into  a  pile  some- 
where. These  should  be  removed  and  buried.  Frequently 
the  banking  about  the  house  is  left  until  late  into  the  sum- 
mer, or  only  partly  removed  on  account  of  frost  when  the 
work  was  begun.  Persuasion  from  boys  or  girls  might  bring 
the  team  to  the  house  at  the  close  of  a  day's  work,  to  re- 
move the  banking  or  the  remaining  portion  of  it. 

20 — 


306 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


The  Lawns. — When  neatness  has  been  established,  con- 
sider next  the  lawn.  Many  farmers  have  reasonably  smooth 
lawns  covered  with  good  sod.  If  this  is  well  burned  over 
and  thoroughly  raked  in  the  spring,  it  will  not  be  difficult 
to  keep  it  cut  with  a  lawn  mower  all  summer.  The  grass 
must  be  kept  low  or  it  will  be  difficult  or  perhaps  impossible 
to  cut  it  with  a  lawn  mower.     A  lawn  mower  may  sound 


Figure  132. 


■View  of  a  pleasant  farm  home,  showing  good  effects  of  lawn, 
vines  and  trees. 


like  an  extravagant  article,  but  it  is  not  expensive,  consider- 
ing the  number  of  years  one  may  be  run. 

Many  farm  yards  are  bare  and  packed  hard  from  fre- 
quent travel.  In  such  cases  the  aid  of  the  father  or  *'big 
brother"  must  be  solicited  to  plow  them  up  and  perhaps 
grade  them  a  little.  If  the  soil  is  not  rich  enough,  a  few 
loads  of  manure  and  black  earth  might  have  to  be  hauled. 
The  boys  and  girls  can  finish  the  work  by  thoroughly  rak- 
ing the  soil  to  prepare  it  for  the  seed.  Blue  grass  alone  is 
the  most  desirable  lawn  grass;  but,  as  this  starts  very  slowly, 
it  is  well  to  mix  with  it  some  more  rapid  growing  varieties, 
as  white  clover  and  redtop.  Sow  this  mixture  very  thick, 
and  rake  again  to  cover  the  seed.  Roll  the  lawn  to  make 
a  smooth  surface  and  give  the  seeds  a  better  chance  to  start 
quickly. 


THE  FARM  HOME  307 

The  lawn  should  be  plowed  and  seeded  early  in  time 
for  the  spring  rains  to  start  the  grass.  The  farm  lawns 
may  suffer  during  a  dry  summer,  but  under  ordinary  condi- 
tions they  will  do  well,  if  the  soil  is  kept  rich  by  an  oc- 
casional dressing  of  well  rotted  manure. 

Desirable  paths  may  be  made  of  gravel  or  sand. 

A  few  good  shade  ta*ees  and  ornamental  shrubs  add  much 
to  the  appearance  of  a  farm  yard,  and  there  is  no  reason 
why  Arbor  Day  cannot  be  observed  on  the  farms  and  many 
desirable  trees  set  out.  Soft  maple  makes  a  very  beautiful 
shade  tree  and  is  of  reasonably  quick  growth.  The  elm  is 
a  popular  tree  for  the  yard  or  driveway.  The  box  elder  is 
commonly  used  and  makes  very  rapid  growth. 

Modem  conveniences  in  the  home  are  now  as  easily 
available  in  the  country  as  in  the  city.  The  septic .  tank 
provides  just  as  satisfactory  means  for  disposing  of  sewage 
as  a  sewer  system.  A  septic  tank  may  be  built  for  a  few 
dollars  on  any  farm.  Gasoline  engines  for  pumping  and 
pressure  tanks  or  other  systems  of  water  supply  are  no 
more  expensive  in  the  country  than  in  the  city.  These 
things  make  it  entirely  practical  to  have  modern  homes  in 
the  country  and  wherever  such  conveniences  can  be  afforded 
they  should  be  installed.  They  save  work  in  the  house 
just  as  much  as  improved  machinery  saves  it  in  the  fields. 
A  modern  home  in  which  there  is  running  water,  a  good 
heating  plant  and  electric  or  gas  lights  will  do  much  to 
make  the  farm  home  attractive  to  both  young  and  old. 
Questions: 

1.  Give  as  many  reasons  as  you  can  why  a  neat,  orderly  farm 
home  is  preferable. 

2.  What  is  the  first  step  in  improving  the  appearance  of  a  farm 
home? 

3.  Tell  what  you  can  about  starting  a  lawn. 

4.  Write  what  you  can  about  shade  trees. 
Arithmetic: 

1.  How  many  cubic  yards  of  black  earth  are  required  to  cover  a 
lawn  100  ft.  square  1  in.  thick? 

2.  If  it  takes  an  hour  to  mow  a  lawn,  100  ft.  square,  and  it  must 
be  mowed  18  times  during  the  summer,  how  many  hours  of  time  are 
required?     How  much  is  this  time  worth  at  15c.  per  hour? 

3.  How  far  would  one  have  to  walk  to  mow  a  lawn  100  feet 
square,  with  a  lawn  mower  that  cuts  a  swath  16  inches  wide? 


308  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

WINDBREAKS 

Value. — A  good  windbreak  about  a  farm  home  is  very 
valuable  and  is  an  inexpensive  luxury.  If  there  is  a  good 
windbreak  about  the  buildings,  less  fuel  is  required  to  keep 
the  house  warm  and  the  stable  will  be  much  warmer.  Ani- 
mals must  be  kept'  warm  during  the  winter  either  by  shelter 
or  by  feed.  If  they  are  exposed  to  the  cold  winds  or  are 
kept  in  cold  stables,  they  must  have  more  feed.  Feed  is 
too  expensive  to  be  given  merely  to  produce  warmth.  The 
shelter  belt  really  saves  feed,  which  is  worth  money. 

The  windbreak  also  protects  the  orchard  and  garden 
from  early  frost,  from  storms,  and  from  hot  winds,  making 
them  much  more  likely  to  produce  good  crops. 

It  is  a  great  comfort  to  hay-makers  and  harvesters  to 
get  behind  a  good  windbreak,  on  windy  days,  to  unload 
hay  or  grain.  Many  times  it  is  possible  to  finish  stackina; 
behind  such  shelter,  when  it  would  be  impossible  to  handle 
the  hay  or  grain  out  in  the  open. 

The  windbreak  makes  the  task  of  doing  chores  much 
pleasanter  and  easier  during  the  winter  than  it  would  be 
if  the  buildings  and  yards  were  exposed. 

Kinds  of  Trees  to  Use. — There  are  many  kinds  of  trees 
that  make  good  windbreaks.  The  first  requirement  is  that 
they  be  hardy — ^that  is,  will  not  kill  out  during  the  winter 
or  during  a  dry  summer;  second,  that  they  have  a  neat 
appearance  and  grow  in  such  form  that  they  really  check 
the  wind. 

In  starting  a  new  windbreak,  trees  that  grow  rapidly 
are,  as  a  rule,  used.  The  white  and  the  golden  willow, 
Cottonwood,  Norway  poplar,  'box  elder,  soft  maple,  etc., 
are  some  of  the  rapid-growing  trees.  These  trees,  if  properly 
set  out  and  cared  for,  will  make  a  good  windbreak  in  five 
to  ten  years.  Trees  that  grow  rapidly  usually  do  not  last 
very  long;  so,  if  the  quick-growing  trees  are  used,  slow- 
growing  and  longer-lived  trees  should  be  set  among  them 
to  replace  them  when  they  begin  to  die  and  break  down. 
Some  of  the  common  slow-growing,  long-lived  trees  are  the 
elm,  hard  maple,  green  ash,  and  several  of  the  evergreens. 

Planning  for  the  Windbreak. — In  planning  for  a  wind- 
break it  is  well  to  make  a  sketch  of  the  farm,  showing  the 


THE  FARM  HOME 


309 


buildings,  lanes,  fields  drives,  yards,  etc.,  and  so  arrange 
the  trees  in  setting  them  out  as  to  give  protection  from  the 
north  and  the  west  winds.  If  possible,  arrange  the  trees 
so  that  the  road  and  other  points  of  interest  may  be  seen 
from  the  house. 

The  windbreak  should  be  far  enough  from  the  buildings 


ffikw 

1 

B^b|nkL< 

Ilia  U 

!•    ,    .        ■ 

1 

m 

1 

H^ 

».s^^mi' 

^ 

t-  -'-^ 

'^ 

Hi^^^  i^v"*-  "■ 

Figiire  133. — An  evergreen  windbreak. 

that  snow  will  not  drift  about  them  or  into  the  yards.  It 
is  well  to  have  it  include  the  garden  and  orchard  as  well 
as  the  buildings. 

Questions: 

1.  Of  what  financial  value  is  a  windbreak? 

2.  AVhat  kinds  of  trees  are  best  for  windbreaks? 

3.  For  what  reasons  would  you  have  the  shelter  belt  or  wind- 
break a  considerable  distance  from  the  buildings? 

Arithmetic: 

1.     What  is  the  cost  of  1,500  willow  cuttings  at  76c.  per  thou- 


2.  What  is  the  cost  of  460  spruce  seedlings  at  $5.00  per  hundred? 

3.  How  many  trees  will  be  required  to  set  three  rows  20  rods 
long — ^trees  4  ft.  apart  in  the  row? 

4.  How  many  willow  cuttings  will  Ibe  required  to  set  3  rows  60 
rods  long,  cuttings  2  ft.  apart  in  the  row? 


310 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


SANITATION 

Healthfulness  of  the  Home. — The  first  thing  to  be  con- 
sidered about  a  home  is  its  healthfulness.  No  matter  how 
beautiful,  attractive  and  comfortable  a  house  may  be,  if 
it  is  not  a  healthful  place,  no  one  would  desire  to  live  in  it. 
One  who  is  building  a  new  house  may  select  a  site  which 
will  give  drainage,  ventilation  and  plenty  of  sunshine.     One 


Mfef- 

yi'W^^HB^^s^^  "^^WBBM'f*'  ^ 

iikitfe^. 

f       ■           '         .     ,, 

§^:m^^^^mJ'^^ 

Figure  134. — A  farm  home  so  situated  as  to  a£ford  good  drainage.  Shade  trees 
are  an  excellent  addition  to  a  home,  but  should  not  be  so  close  or  so  thick  as 
to  prevent  a  good  circulation  of  air  and  the  entrance  of  sunshine  to  the  rooms. 

who  is  buying  a  farm,  expecting  to  live  in  the  house  already 
upon  it,  would  do  well  to  consider  the  healthfulness  of 
the  situation  as  well  as  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  Many  who 
find  themselves  in  unhealthful  homes,  may  often,  with  but 
little  labor  and  expense,  make  the  place  quite  as  healthful 
as  any  they  might  have  selected. 

Drainage  about  the  Home. — The  healthfulness  of  a  farm 
home  depends  first  of  all  upon  drainage.  The  ground  should 
slope  from  the  house,  so  that  the  cellar  and  yard  may  be 
dry.  The  well  should  be  so  situated  that  no  surface  water, 
or  seepage  from  house,  barn  or  any  other  building,  can 
possibly  get  into  it.  It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to  the 
health  of  all  in  the  home  that  the  drinking  water  be  kept 


THE  FARM  HOME  311 

pure.  If  the  natural  drainage  is  not  sufficient,  a  system 
of  drainage  that  would  give  the  desired  result  should  be 
carefully  planned  and  put  in.  An  open  ditch  could  be 
made,  but  a  tile  drain  is  preferable.  If  it  is  worth  while 
to  drain  land  to  produce  better  crops,  it  is  worth  while  to 
drain  to  make  the  home  more  healthful. 

Chickens,  turkeys  or  fowls  of  any  kind  should  not  be 
allowed  about  the  well  or  in  the  yard  immediately  surround- 
ing the  house.  They  are  not  only  one  more  means  of  carry- 
ing dirt  to  the  house,  but  they  also  destroy  grass. 

House  flies  are  a  great  menace  to  health  as  well  as  to 
comfort.  If  there  is  disease  in  any  home  in  the  neighbor- 
hood, flies  may  carry  the  germs  on  their  legs  and  bodies 
and  so  infect  other  homes.  It  is  generally  beheved  that 
they  breed  to  a  great  extent  in  horse  manure.  For  this 
reason,  if  for  no  other,  manure  should  not  be  allowed  to 
accumulate  in  the  yards  or  about  the  barn. 

Houses  should  be  well  screened  against  flies.  Remov- 
able wire  screens  are  the  most  desirable.  While  they  may 
be  a  little  expensive  at  first,  they  last  so  long  that  their 
yearly  cost  is  very  slight.  If  taken  down  in  the  fall  and 
carefully  put  away  for  the  winter,  and  then  given  a  coat  of 
thin  paint  before  they  are  put  up  in  the  spring,  they  will 
last  almost  indefinitely.  Where  such  screens  cannot  be 
had,  mosquito  netting  may  be  used. 

Bacteria. — Even  when  the  outside  conditions  are  all 
that  they  should  be,  a  crusade  against  dust  and  germs  must 
be  kept  up  within.  A  few  years  ago  germs  and  microbes 
were  practically  unheard  of.  To-day  we  hear  and  read 
much  about  them,  and  are  just  beginning  to  reaUze  their 
influence.  There  are  a  number  of  terms  in  common  use 
to-day  which  it  may  be  well  to  understand.  Bacteria  are 
very  simple,  minute  organisms  belonging  to  the  vegetable 
kingdom.  They  live  in  soil  and  water  and  on  the  skin  of 
man  and  beasts.  There  are  hundreds  of  species  of  them. 
Some  species  are  helpful — such  as  cause  decay  of  vegetable 
matter  in  the  soil  and  so  enrich  the  soil — other  species  pro- 
duce disease.  Many  organisms,  so  small  that  they  can  be 
seen  only  with  a  microscope,  whether  animal  or  vegetable, 
are  called  germs,  microbes  and  micro-organisms. 


312  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

It  is  now  known  that  these  germs  or  microbes  cause 
many  of  our  contagious  diseases,  such  as  tuberculosis  (con- 
sumption), diphtheria,  and  typhoid  fever.  The  mistress  of 
a  household  must  remember  that  she  cleans  her  house,  not 
only  that  it  may  look  well-kept,  but  more  especially  to  make 
it  sanitary.  While  dust  and  dirt  in  themselves  may  not  be 
directly  harmful,  they  are  likely  to  become  hotbeds  for 
disease  germs. 
Questions: 

1.  What  may  often  be  done  to  improve  unsanitary  conditions, 
if  they  exist? 

2.  Why  should  not  fowls  be  allowed  about  the  house? 

3.  What  are  the  objections  to  house  flies,  and  how  may  they 
be  kept  out? 

4.  Explain  the  terms  bacteria  and  germs  or  microbes. 
Arithmetic: 

1.  How  many  square  feet  of  wire  netting  are  required  to  make 
a  screen  for  a  window  30  in.  by  60  in.?  What  would  the  screen  cost 
at  2c.  per  square  foot? 

2.  What  is  the  cost  of  screen  at  2c.  per  square  foot  for  a  door 
3  ft.  by  7  ft.? 

3.  Screen  window  frames  are  usually  made  of  lumber  1  in.  thick 
and  2^  in.  wide.  How  much  lumber  is  required  to  make  a  full  size 
screen  frame  for  a  window  30  in.  by  60  in.?  What  is  the  lumber  worth 
at  $35.00  per  thousand  feet? 

4.  Screen  door  frames  are  usually  made  of  lumber  l}4  in-  thick 
and  3  in.  wide.  How  much  lumber  is  required  to  make  a  screen  door 
frame  3  ft.  by  7  ft.?  What  is  the  cost  of  the  lumber  at  $35.00  per 
thousand  feet? 

5.  What  is  the  cost  of  material  to  make  screens  for  a  house  having 
3  doors  and  14  windows?     (Use  sizes  and  prices  given  above.) 

VENTILATION 

Ventilation  is  Simple. — People  and  animals  need  pure 
and  fresh  air  in  order  that  they  may  be  healthy.  Supply- 
ing this  fresh  air  is  much  simpler,  especially  in  the  country, 
than  is  generally  supposed.  It  is  known  that  air  moves 
about  easily,  and  that  it  presses  down,  due  to  its  weight, 
upon  the  earth.  If,  for  any  reason,  the  pressure  is  not  the 
same  on  all  sides,  the  air  will  move  in  the  direction  of  the 
least  pressure.  Every  pupil  knows  that  when  a  fire  is 
lighted  in  a  stove  the  heated  air  and  smoke  will  rush  up  the 
chimney.  When  air  is  heated,  it  expands;  hence  it  becomes 
lighter.  This  principle  may  be  illustrated  by  heating  a 
bottle  so  that  the  air  in  it  will  be  quite  hot.   -Then  place 


THE  FARM  HOME 


313 


your  thumb  or  the  palm  of  your  hand  over  the  top  of  the 
bottle  and  allow  the  bottle  to  cool.  Cooling  may  be  hastened 
by  putting  the  bottle  in  cold  water,  keeping  your  thumb 
or  hand  firmly  over  the  top.  As  the  bottle  and  the  air  it 
contains  cool,  you  will  feel  a  pressure  on  the  back  of  your 
thumb  or  hand,  which  will  seem  to  be  sucked  into  the 
bottle.    This  fact  indicates  that,  as  the  air  in  the  bottle 


Figure  135. — Method  of  ventilating  a         Figure  136. — Method  of  ventilating  a 
schoolroom  when  freah  air  is  taken  schoolroom  when  fresh  air  is  taken 

in  through  the  wall  near  the  ceiling.  in  under  the  stove,  where  it  is  heat- 

Air  movement  indicated  by  arrows.  ed,  then  diffused  through  the  room- 

Arrows  indicate  movement  of  air. 

cools,  it  contracts  and  occupies  less  space.  It  is  evident, 
then,  that  cool  air  occupies  less  space  than  warm  air. 

How  Air  Moves. — Because  air  expands  when  it  becomes 
warm,  it  is  hghter  in  proportion  to  its  bulk.  The  air  moves 
somewhat  as  a  pair  of  balances,  the  heavier  end  going  down 
and  the  Hghter  end  going  up.  When  some  of  the  air  is 
heated  and  some  remains  cool,  it  gets  out  of  balance,  and 
the  heavier  cool  air  pressing  down  around  the  hghter  warm 
air  forces  the  warm  air  upward.  Hence,  what  we  call 
draught  in  the  chimney  is  caused  by  the  heavier  cool  air 
outside  forcing,  by  its  greater  weight,  the  light,  warm  air 
upward. 

Object  of  Ventilation. — The  problem  in  ventilation  is 
not  to  remove  the  warm  air  from  within  buildings  and  let 
in  cool  air,  but  to  remove  foul  air  and  replace  it  with  fresh 
air  without  causing  a  draught.     Thus  the  principles  explain- 


314  ELEMENT8  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

ed  above  must  be  known  and  also  the  fact  that  foul  air  is 
heavier  than  pure  air  and  is  usually  found  near  the  floor  of 
the  room. 

Ventilation  Flue. — A  stove  with  dampers  open  is  very 
good  for  taking  foul  air  from  a  room,  as  it  takes  air  from 
near  the  floor.  To  provide  ventilation  when  stoves  are  not 
in  use,  a  double  flue  chimney  should  be  built,  with  one  flue 
opening  near  the  floor  to  remove  the  foul  air,  and  the  other 
flue  to  carry  the  smoke  from  the  stove  or  furnace.  The 
heat  in  the  smoke  flue  warms  the  ventilating  flue  and  aids 
in  txic  circulation  of  air.  In  this  way  foul  air  is  removed 
from  near  the  floor,  while  warm  air,  which  naturally  rises 
near  the  ceiling,  is  not  removed  until  it  becomes  foul  and 
settles  to  the  floor. 

Fresh  Air  Supply. — To  supply  fresh  air  is  very  simple 
in  rooms  heated  by  the  furnace,  as  the  fresh  air  is  brought 
in  from  outside  and  heated  in  passing  through  the  furnace 
into  the  rooms.  In  buildings  heated  with  stoves,  steam  or 
hot  water,  air  must  be  brought  directly  to  the  room  from 
outside,  and  the  object  is  to  do  this  without  causing  a 
draught  of  cool  air  on  the  occupants  of  the  room.  There 
are  two  good  methods  of  letting  fresh  air  into  rooms.  The 
first  and  simpler  is  to  let  it  in  near  the  ceiling,  as  shown  in 
Figure  135,  where  it  will  spread  out  over  the  room  and 
gradually  settle  through  the  warm  air,  and  as  it  becomes 
foul  be  drawn  out  through  the  stove  or  ventilating  flue 
from  near  the  floor.  Another  method,  one  frequently  used 
in  schools,  is  to  have  a  sheet  iron  jacket  about  the  stove. 
Air  is  let  in  under  the  stove,  is  warmed  and  rises  between 
the  stove  and  jacket  to  near  the  ceiling,  where  it  spreads 
out  over  the  room  and  is  drawn  from  near  the  floor,  as  in 
the  other  case.  See  Figure  136. 
Questions: 

1.  How  can  you  prove  that  air  expands  when  heated,  and  is 
lighter  than  cool  air? 

2.  What  causes  air  to  move  up  a  chimney? 

3.  What  is  the  object  of  ventilators? 

4.  Describe  two  good  methods  of  getting  fresh  air  into  a  room. 
Arithmetic: 

1.  A  man  needs  20  cu.  ft.  of  air  per  hour,  how  much  does  he  need 
in  8  hours?  How  much  air  will  two  persons  need  while  sleeping  in  a 
room  8  hours? 


THE  FARM  HOME 


315 


2.  If  one  needs  20  cu.  ft.  of  air  in  an  hour,  how  much  will  40 
children  need  in  6  hours? 

3.  How  many  cubic  feet  of  air  in  a  room  10  x  10  and  8  ft.  high? 

THE  FARMSTEAD 

Arrangement  of  buildings,  windbreaks,  shelter  belts, 
orchard,  garden,  yards  and  lanes  is  worthy  of  close  study. 
The  sketch  of  a  farmstead  submitted  herewith,  Figure  137, 
may  be  used  as  a  suggestion  in  workmg  out  a  plan  for  any 
farm,  though  there  are  probably  only  a  few  places  where 
it  would  entirely  fit.  This  plan  represents  a  great  deal  of 
thought  and  study  and  will  serve  as  a  guide  in  planning  a 
farmstead  anywhere. 

Location.— Other  things  being  equal,  it  is  advisable  to 
locate  the  farmstead  along  one  side  of  the  farm,  rather 
than  at  one  corner,  because  it  gets  the  center  of  operations 
nearer  to  all  the  fields.  It  is  also  advantageous  to  locate 
buildings  where  there  is  good  drainage;  also  near  a  main 

road  and  near  neighbors,  and 
where  a  good  pleasant  view  is 
afforded. 

Size. —  Many   farmsteads   are 

entirely   too   small.     Six  acres  or 

more  are  needed  for  best  results, 

so  that  the  buildings  may  be  far 

enough  from  the  windbreak  so  that 

the  snow   will     not    drift    about 

them.      In   the    plan   submitted, 

eight  acres  are  used.  Of  this  space 

nearly  two  acres  are  devoted  to  a 

windbreak.     The  house  is  located 

on   a   lot   in  front.     This   lot  is 

Figure  137.— Eight-acre  farmstead  made     Comparatively    small,   be- 

3"to'uit'ry\ouL.^"r'wfteri'ng  cause  there   is   not   tune  enough 

trough,  5  main  barn,  6  ma-  to  carc  for  a  large  lawn.     At  one 

chine  shed,  7  hog  house,  8  corn-      .  ^  /•  j.i        i  i  j.  x      xi. 

crib,  9  granary.  Side  of  the  house  and  next  to  the 

road  a  horse  or  calf  paddock  is 
provided.  This  is  an  open  grassy  patch  that  gives  breadth 
and  a  broad  view  to  the  place,  and  makes  it  distinctly 
different  from  a  city  home  on  a  crowded  lot.  Alfalfa  or 
any  hay  crop  may  be  grown  on  this  plat,  and  cut  for  hay. 


316 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


eoA 


ZOA 


BOA 


BOA 


GA 


20A 


ii® 


if  one  does  not  like  the  paddock  as  planned.     On  the  other 

side  of  the  house  is  the  garden.     It  is  near  the  house  where 

the  women  can  easily  get  to  it  for  fresh  vegetables  and 

small  fruit. 

Convenience. — The  orchard  and  poultry  house  are  just 

back  of  the  garden,  also  to  accommodate  the  housekeeper. 

The  hog  house  and  yard  are  farthest  away  from  the  house, 

because  these  are  most 
likely  to  be  objection- 
able. The  comcrib  is 
near  the  hog  house,  be- 
cause most  of  the  corn 
is  likely  to  be  fed  to  the 
hogs.  It  is  also  near  one 
of  the  cattle  yards,  con- 
venient to  feed  to  the 
cattle,  if  desired.  Next 
to  this  is  the  granary, 
which  is  also  near  the 
main  barn,  so  that  grain 
for  feeding  hogs  or  the 
stock  in  the  bam  may 

^       ,  oo     . , ..«       .  u  o       r        be  near  where  it  will  be 

Figure  138. — A  IbO-acre  farm  with  8-acre  farm-  ,         rriv  •      i_ 

stead  facing  east.     Note    communication    of    USed.        1 116  mam  Dam  IS 

wfth'sm^^fidds^  large  fields  and  hog  yards  next  and  directly  in  front 

of  one  of  the  drives  to 
the  main  highway.  This  gives  the  barn  a  prominent 
place,  and  makes  it  convenient  in  driving  to  or  from  the 
bam. 

Saving  Steps. — The  water  trough  is  placed  where  the 
stock  in  the  yard  can  reach  it,  and  also  where  horses  taken 
out  at  the  front  of  the  barn  can  also  be  watered  without 
going  out  of  or  into  the  cattle  yard;  that  is,  it  extends  on 
both  sides  of  the  fence.  Beyond  the  water  trough  is  the 
machine  shed.  A  team  will  be  taken  out  of  the  barn, 
watered,  hitched  to  a  wagon  or  machine  in  the  shed,  and 
then  proceed  to  the  field  without  going  back  and  forth  over 
the  same  ground,  as  would  be  necessary  were  the  machine 
shed  on  one  side  of  the  barn  and  the  water  trough  on  the 
other  side.     The  same  saving  occurs  in  coming  from  the 


THE  FARM  HOME  317 

field.  The  first  building  reached  is  the  machine  shed, 
where  the  team  will  be  unhitched.  They  will  then  stop  at 
the  water  trough  on  the  way  to  the  barn. 

Yards. — The  hog  yard  is  also  on  the  side  of  the  farm- 
stead on  which  the  hog  pastures  lie.  See  Figure  138.  The 
cattle  yards  connect  with  the  main  bam,  and  likewise  with 
the  large  field.  Two  yards  are  provided,  so  that  two  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  stock  may  be  fed  during  winter,  and  so  one 
may  be  used  during  the  fall  for  a  stock  yard,  while  the 
other  will  care  for  the  cattle.  This  plan  will  save  the  trouble 
of  having  to  put  an  extra  fence  about  the  stacks  every  fall. 

Waste. — While  this  plan  uses  about  eight  acres  of  space, 
every  bit  of  it  is  used  to  good  advantage  and  provides  an 
attractive,  convenient  arrangement  for  the  great  amount 
of  work  necessarily  done  on  a  farmstead. 
Questions: 

1.  Study  Figure  137.  Draw  from  memory  a  sketch  of  the  farm- 
stead and  properly  locate  buildings,  yards,  etc. 

2.  Give  one  or  more  good  reasons  for  the  location  of  the  poultry 
house,  garden,  and  orchard,  as  they  are  in  this  plan. 

3.  Why  is  the  machine  shed  placed  where  it  is  instead  of  on  the 
other  side  of  the  bam? 

Arithmetic: 

1.  If  one  makes  three  trips  each  day  to  the  poultry  house,  how 
much  farther  will  one  walk  in  a  year  than  necessary.  If  the  poultry 
house  is  5  rods  farther  from  the  house  than  it  should  be? 

2.  If  a  man  makes  five  trips  each  day  to  a  comcrib,  how  much 
extra  traveling  will  he  do  in  a  year,  if  the  com  crop  is  2  rods  farther 
away  than  it  should  be? 

3.  If  a  man  takes  a  team  to  a  water  trough  six  times  each  day, 
how  much  does  he  save  in  a  year,  if  he  saves  2  rods  each  trip? 
Exercises: 

1.  Each  pupil  should  describe  what  he  regards  as  the  most  at- 
tractive and  well-arranged  and  sanitary  home  in  the  community  and 
state  reasons. 

2.  Show  how  the  schoolhouse  is  ventilated.  Is  it  properly  ven- 
tilated? 

3.  Each  pupil  should  make  a  neat  sketch  of  the  home  farmstead 
showing  buildings,  yards,  drives,  lane,  windbreaks,  fields,  garden  and 
orchard.    Have  class  criticize  on  the  arrangements. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
FARM  MANAGEMENT 

STANDING  OF  THE  FARMER 

Qualification. — To  be  a  successful  farmer  one  must 
have  as  much  knowledge  and  ability  as  a  successful  mer- 
chant, banker,  manufacturer,  or  any  other  business  man. 
Not  long  since  it  was  believed  that,  if  one  were  not  intelli- 
gent enough  to  do  anything  else,  one  could  farm.  This 
belief  might  have  been  true,  to  some  extent,  many  years 
ago,  when  the  land  was  newly  settled,  the  soil  was  rich,  and 
there  was  practically  no  market  for  anything  but  wheat, 
so  that  the  chief  requirements  of  a  farmer  were  to  plow,  to 
sow  and  to  reap.  The  more  able  farmers  were  more  success- 
ful than  the  others,  but  even  the  careless  and  the  thought- 
less succeeded  fairly  well  as  long  as  the  land  was  rich  and 
free.  ,  These  crude  and  careless  methods  of  farming  and 
the  number  of  farmers  who  used  little  system  or  good  busi- 
ness management  caused  farming  to  be  regarded  as  a  rather 
inferior  calling. 

Conditions  Different. — Conditions  are  now  very  differ- 
ent. The  fertility  of  the  soil  is  often  somewhat  depleted, 
so  that  careful  and  well-planned  systems  of  cropping,  tillage 
and  fertilization  must  be  employed  to  secure  good  crops. 
The  price  of  land  has  increased  until  one  must  pay  from 
$5,000.00  to  $25,000.00  for  a  160-acre  farm  that  at  one 
time  could  be  had  free.  The  country  is  more  thickly 
populated,  and  systems  of  transportation  are  better,  so 
that  nearly  any  product  raised  can  be  marketed.  The 
conditions  tend  to  raise  the  requirements  of  the  farmer. 
He  must  be  wide  awake,  intelligent  and  ever  on  the  alert 
for  better  methods  of  production.  Thus  the  proper  manage- 
ment of  a  farm  demands  as  high  a  degree  of  intelligence  as 
is  needed  in  other  walks  of  life,  and  we  now  find  as  strong, 
as  intelligent  and  as  well  educated  men  and  women  on  the 
farms  as  in  town.  No  one  is  now  ashamed  to  be  called  a 
farmer.     And  an  intelligent  and  successful  farmer  stands  as 


FARM  MANAGEMENT  319 

well  in  any  community  as  a  successful  banker,  business  or 
professional  man.  It  has  been  estimated  that  for  the  year 
1914  the  income  of  American  farmers  was  ten  billion  dollars. 
Farming  is  not  only  the  most  important,  but  the  biggest 
business  in  existence.  The  farm  property  of  this  country  is 
valued  at  $32,500,000,000. 

Home  conditions  on  the  farm  may  now  be  fully  equal  to 
those  anywhere.  Science  has  discovered  the  septic  tank 
which  provides  sanitary  means  for  sewage  disposal  without 
sewers.  Modern  machinery  has  made  a  water  supply  under 
pressure,  lighting  and  heating  quite  as  easily  secured  as  in 
the  city.  Rural  telephones,  rural  mail  delivery,  parcel  post 
and  the  automobile  have  brought  the  country  home  in  as 
close  touch  with  the  outside  world  as  the  suburban  home. 
Farm  life  to-day  offers  as  good  opportunities  for  living,  de- 
veloping and  enjoying  life  as  are  offered  in  any  city.  Most 
men  of  wealth  own  farms  and  many  are  building  homes  in 
the  country  to  which  they  hope  to  retire. 

Bright  Men  and  Women  Seek  the  Farm. — The  changed 
conditions  are  placing  more  and  more  bright  and  progressive 
men  and  women  on  our  farms,  who  study  agriculture  and 
put  their  best  efforts  into  it.  As  a  consequence,  we  have 
agricultural  schools  and  colleges,  agricultural  papers  and 
magazines,  and  are  developing  a  true  science  of  agriculture. 
We  no  longer  depend  upon  "chance"  or  ''good  luck"  for 
results  in  farming,  but  know  the  conditions  that  are  neces- 
sary to  good  results  and  plan  and  study  to  supply  these 
conditions.  Any  boy  or  girl  may  well  be  proud  of  having 
been  born  and  raised  on  a  farm  and  educated  for  the  busi- 
ness of  farming. 

Questions: 

1.  Why  did  it  require  less  thought  and  intelligence  to  farm  many 
years  ago  than  it  does  now? 

2.  Why  was  farming  regarded  as  an  inferior  occupation? 

3.  What  has  raised  farming  to  as  high  a  degree  as  any  other 
occupation? 

4.  What  is  the  result  of  this  good  standing  for  the  farmer? 
Arithmetic: 

1.  In  1870  A  took  a  160-acre  homestead.  The  land  cost  him 
nothing.  He  built  $300  worth  of  buildings.  He  had  4  horses  worth 
$75  each,  2  cows  worth  $30,  2  hogs  worth  $7.50  each,  20  chickens 
worth  25c.  each  and  $200  worth  of  machinery.     How  much  had  he 


320  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

invested?     How  large  an  income  must  he  have  gotten  to  pay  6% 
interest  on  his  investment? 

2.  In  1915  A's  farm  is  worth  $100  per  acre;  he  has  S800  worth 
of  horses,  $1,000  worth  of  cattle,  $150  worth  of  hogs,  $50  worth  of 
poultry,  and  $1,000  worth  of  machinery.  How  much  has  he  invested? 
What  income  must  he  receive  to  pay  6%  interest  on  his  investment? 

ROTATION  OF  CROPS 

Definition. — Rotation  of  crops  means  changing  the  crops 
year  after  year  on  a  field,  so  that  no  field  grows  the  same 
kind  of  a  crop  for  several  years  in  succession. 

If  a  field  were  sown  to  wheat  one  year,  barley  another 
year  and  clover  another,  we  would  say  that  the  crops  are 
being  rotated  on  that  field. 

Good  farmers  are  practicing  more  or  less  some  plan  of 
crop  rotation  on  their  farms,  because  they  have  found 
from  experience  that  their  fields  yield  better,  if  the  crops 
are  changed  about,  than  when  one  field  raises  the  same 
kind  of  crop  for  several  years  in  succession. 

Larger  yields  mean  larger  incomes.  Larger  incomes 
enable  farmers  to  have  better  homes,  better  schools,  better 
roads;  in  short,  to  live  better  in  every  way.  We  should, 
therefore,  be  interested  in  knowing  more  about  conditions 
which  have  a  tendency  to  increase  yields. 

Systematic  Rotation. — A  still  better  practice,  because  it 
usually  results  in  larger  yields  and  more  profit,  is  to  rotate 
crops  in  some  regular  order,  so  one  may  know  several  years 
in  advance  what  crop  will  be  grown  on  each  field.  Such  a 
plan  of  cropping  is  called  a  systematic  rotation.  A  very 
simple  form  of  a  systematic  rotation  is  to  divide  the  tillable 
land  into  three  fields  of  about  equal  size  and  crop  them  as 
shown  in  the  following  chart: 

Field  A.  Field  B.  Field  C. 

1st.  year  Oats.  Clover.  Com. 

2nd.  year         Clover.  Corn.  Oats. 

3rd.  year         Com.  Oats.  Clover. 

From  the  above  chart  one  will  see  that  each  field  has  a 
different  crop  on  it  each  year  for  three  years,  but  that  the 
farm  is  producing  the  same  crops  each  year.  That  is,  one 
field  is  in  corn,  one  in  oats  and  one  in  clover.  In  this  rota- 
tion corn  always  follows  clover,  oats  always  follows  corn 
and  clover  always  follows  oats.     If  a  person  is  practicing 


FARM  MANAGEMENT  32i 

such  a  rotation  he  can  tell,  as  many  years  ahead  as  he  wishes, 
to  what  crop  a  certain  field  will  be  planted.  This  enables 
him  to  plan  accordingly.  He  knows  how  many  acres  of 
corn,  oats  and  clover  he  will  have  each  year,  and  about 
how  many  bushels  or  tons  he  can  ordinarily  expect.  Thus 
he  may  provide  the  proper  amount  of  storage  room  for  his 
crops.  He  will  know  about  how  much  stock  he  can  keep 
each  year,  and  can  have  just  what  machinery  he  needs. 

Effect  on  the  Soil. — Another  advantage  gained  by  fol- 
lowing such  a  rotation  is  that  each  crop  leaves  the  soil  in 
good  condition  for  the  crop  that  is  to  follow.  If  the  corn 
crop  is  well  cultivated,  the  oats  may  be  sown  the  following 
spring  without  plowing  the  land — simply  by  disking  the 
surface  and  making  a  good  seed  bed.  The  clover  seed  is 
sown  with  the  oats,  and  makes  the  crop  the  year  after  with- 
out extra  seeding.  Thus  three  crops  are  grown  and  the 
ground  is  plowed  but  once.  That  is,  it  is  plowed  for  the 
corn,  grows  the  corn  crop,  then  a  crop  of  oats  and  a  crop 
of  clover  before  it  is  again  plowed. 

Rotation  also  helps  to  keep  fields  free  from  weeds.  If 
the  corn  crop  is  well  cultivated  many  weed  seeds  are  given 
a  favorable  chance  to  grow,  then  the  next  cultivation  kills 
them.  The  clover  crop,  as  you  remember,  is  cut  in  the 
latter  part  of  June,  which  is  earlier  than  most  weeds  ripen 
their  seeds.  The  crop  is  usually  cut  again  for  hay  or  seed, 
so  weeds  are  practically  given  no  chance  to  ripen  seed. 

All  these  advantages  are  gained  simply  by  having  a 
systematic  rotation  plan  to  follow,  and  without  increasing 
the  amount  of  work.  But  it  does  require  a  little  more 
thought  than  a  haphazard  system  of  cropping. 

Questions: 

1.  What  is  meant  by  rotation  of  crops? 

2.  What  is  meant  by  a  systematic  rotation? 

3.  Show  and  explain  the  cropping  of  a  farm  in  a  simple  sys- 
tematic rotation. 

4.  What  are  the  advantages  of  a  rotation? 
Arithmetic: 

1.  If  but  one  third  of  the  land  is  plowed  each  year  when  cropped 
to  a  3-year  rotation,  how  much  is  saved  on  a  farm,  with  90  acres  of 
field,  if  it  costs  $1.50  per  acre  to  plow? 

2.  If  it  costs  $9.50  per  acre  to  raise  a  crop  of  hay  and  $12.02  per 
21— 


322  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

acre  to  raise  a  crop  of  oats,  how  much  less  does  it  cost  to  raise  30  acroa 
of  hay  than  to  raise  30  acres  of  oats? 

3.  If  the  rotation  of  crops  adds  15  bus.  per  acre  to  the  corn 
crop,  how  much  will  it  increase  the  yield  on  35  acres?  How  much  is 
the  increased  yield  of  corn  worth  at  35c.  per  bushel? 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  FIELD  CROPS 

Three  Classes. — There  are  a  great  many  different  sys- 
tems of  rotation.  Some  are  good  and  some  are  not  good, 
and  it  is  well  to  study  a  few  of  the  principles,  that  we  may 
easily  know  whether  a  certain  rotation  is  likely  to  give 
good  results  or  not. 

We  rotate  crops  in  order  to  get  good  yields,  hence  we 
must  know  something  about  the  effect  of  each  crop  upon 
the  soil,  so  that  we  may  know  in  what  condition  the  soil 
will  be  left  for  the  next  crop. 

To  simplify  a  study  of  the  general  field  crops,  they  may 
all  be  placed  in  three  classes,  grain  crops,  grass  crops  and 
cultivated  crops,  basing  the  classification  on  the  effect  each 
class  has  on  the  soil. 

Grain  Crops. — Under  grain  crops  we  can  place  wheat, 
oats,  barley,  flax,  speltz,  millet  and  other  crops  that  grow 
but  one  year  from  one  seeding  and  are  not  cultivated  while 
they  are  growing.  This  class  of  crops  has  a  comparatively 
small  root  system,  and,  as  a  consequeiice,  very  little  vege- 
table matter  is  left  in  the  soil  when  the  crop  is  removed. 
From  the  time  they  are  sown  until  they  are  ripe  is  usually 
long  enough  to  allow  many  of  the  worst  weeds  to  ripen 
seeds,  so  these  crops  have  a  tendency  to  make  land  more 
weedy  year  after  year.  Grain  crops  are  likely  to  be  sold 
from  the  farm,  thus  removing  a  large  amount  of  fertility. 

Grass  Crops. — Under  grass  crops  we  can  place  timothy, 
bromus,  blue  grass,  redtop  and  all  the  common  clovers 
and  alfalfa.  From  the  standpoint  of  the  botanist,  the 
clovers  and  alfalfa  are  not  grass  crops,  but  for  our  classifica- 
tion we  will  regard  them  as  such.  Grass  crops  are  principally 
used  for  hay  or  pasture.  They  all  grow  two  or  more  years, 
and  are  not  cultivated  during  their  growth.  They  develop 
heavy  root  systems,  and,  therefore,  add  much  vegetable 
matter  to  the  soil.  Grass  crops  are  usually  harvested  two 
cr   iiore  times  during  the  year,  and  each  crop  grows  so 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


323 


^^"i^''^. 


324  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

quickly  that  few  weeds  have  a  chance  to  ripen  seed.  This 
crop  is  usually  fed  to  stock  on  the  farm,  and  a  large  part  of 
the  fertility  removed  by  the  crop  is  returned  in  the  form 
of  manure. 

Cultivated  Crops. — Under  cultivated  crops  we  can  place 
corn,  potatoes  and  root  crops;  as  mangels,  beets,  etc.,  or 
any  crop  planted  in  rows  and  cultivated  while  growing. 
The  cultivation  destroys  many  weeds,  conserves  moisture 
and  causes  the  liberation  of  plant  food;  in  fact,  on  very  rich 
soil  much  more  plant  food  is  liberated  than  is  used  by  the 
crop,  and  much  is  washed  out.  On  this  account  cultivated 
crops  are  much  more  exhaustive  of  soil  fertility  than  the 
other  classes  of  crops.  The  corn  and  root  crops  are  usually 
largely  fed  on  the  farm;  hence  most  of  the  fertility  removed 
by  them  is  returned  in  the  manure  produced. 

A  Good  Rotation  will  usually  include  one  or  more  crops 
from  each  of  these  three  classes.  A  rotation  of  wheat, 
barley  and  clover,  is  not  a  very  good  rotation,  because  it 
includes  no  cultivated  crop  to  clear  the  land  of  weeds  and 
to  conserve  moisture.  A  three-year  rotation  of  corn,  oats 
and  clover,  has  one  crop  from  each  class  and  is  a  very  good 
rotation  for  many  farms. 

A  rotation  is  usually  called  a  three,  four,  five,  six  or 
seven-year  rotation,  according  to  the  number  of  crops  in- 
cluded in  it. 

The  kind  of  rotation  suited  to  any  farm  must  be  worked 
out  to  provide  the  grain,  feed  and  pasturage  needed  on  the 
farm.  It  is  possible  to  plan  a  good  rotation  for  any  farm, 
but  it  requires  considerable  knowledge  and  ability  to  select 
the  very  best  one.  To  properly  manage  a  farm  requires 
as  much  knowledge,  ability  and  judgment  as  to  properly 
conduct  any  other  business. 
Questions: 

1.  What  is  gained  by  classifying  field  crops? 

2.  What  do  you  understand  by  grain  crops,  and  what  effect 
do  they  have  on  the  soil? 

3.  What  do  you  understand  by  grass  crops,  and  what  effect  do 
they  have  on  the  soil? 

4.  What  do  you  understand  by  cultivated  crops,  and  what 
effect  do  they  have  on  the  soil? 

Arithmetic: 

i.     If  a  bushel  of  wheat  removes  27c.  worth  of  fertility  from  the 


FARM  MANAGEMENT  325 

soil,   how  much  is  removed  from  an  acre  yielding  20  })us.  of  wheat? 

2.  If  a  crop  of  clover  yielding  2  tons  per  acre  removes  100  lbs. 
of  mineral  elements  worth  53^c.  per  pound,  what  is  the  value  of 
fertility  sold  in  two  tons  of  clover  hay? 

3.  If  a  bushel  of  com  removes  14o.  worth  of  fertility  from  the 
soil,  how  much  is  removed  from  an  acre  yielding  50  bus.? 

ROTATION  MAINTAINS  VEGETABLE  MATTER 

Worn-out  Farms. — One  often  hears  the  remark  that  a 
certain  farm  is  worn  out  or  exhausted.  The  remark  is 
usually  based  on  the  fact  that  the  farm  in  question  no 
longer  yields  good  crops.  Many  farms  that  formerly  yield- 
ed from  twenty  to  thirty  bushels  of  wheat  per  acre  now 
yield  but  from  five  to  ten  bushels.  When  we  consider  the 
fact  that  some  of  the  land  in  Europe  has  been  cultivated 
for  centuries  and  is  still  producing  large  yields,  we  must 
conclude  that  it  is  much  better,  or  that  farms  in  this  country 
that  are  giving  such  low  yields  are  not  exhausted  but  are 
simply  not  in  good  condition. 

Our  faith  in  the  latter  conclusion  is  strengthened  by  the 
fact  that  most  of  us  know  of  instances  where  men  have 
taken  these  run-down  farms,  and  after  a  few  years  have 
been  able  to  get  as  large  yields  from  them  as  ever. 

From  the  facts  at  hand,  we  must  conclude  that  very 
likely  the  reason  these  farms  are  at  present  unproductive 
is  because  conditions  are  not  favorable  for  the  liberation 
of  plant  food.  That  is,  the  plant  food  may  be  present,  but 
is  not  soluble  so  that  plants  can  get  it  easily.  We  have 
learned  that  the  most  common  way  in  which  plant  food  is 
made  soluble  is  by  the  decomposition  of  vegetable  matter. 
We  may  believe,  then,  that  the  reason  many  farms  are 
unproductive  is  because  some  of  the  conditions  necessary 
for  decomposition  are  lacking. 

Lack  Vegetable  Matter. — The  condition  we  are  most 
likely  to  find  lacking  in  these  unproductive  soils  is  a  suffi- 
cient supply  of  vegetable  matter.  A  good  rotation  of  crops 
provides  for  maintaining  the  supply  of  vegetable  matter 
in  the  soil,  because  it  provides  that  each  field  shall  grow  a 
/^rass  crop  one  or  more  years  in  every  three  to  six  years. 
Grass  crops  have  heavy  root  systems  and,  therefore,  add 
vegetable  matter  to  the  soil. 

One  can  get  a  good  comparison  of  the  amount  of  vege- 


326  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

table  matter  added  by  grain  crops,  and  by  grass  crops,  by 
pulling  a  few  of  the  stubbles  of  grain  and  of  clover  and 
timothy.  One  will  find  that  the  grain  stubble  is  pulled  up 
very  easily  and  that  some  digging  must  be  done  to  get 
stubble  of  any  of  the  grass  plants. 

In  the  simple  three-year  rotation,  corn,  grain  and  clover, 
discussed  on  page  320  you  will  see  that  each  field  will  be 
in  clover  once  every  three  years.  This  will  add  sufficient 
vegetable  matter  to  keep  the  soil  reasonably  well  supplied 
during  the  other  two  years  while  the  corn  and  grain  crops, 
or  crops  that  exhaust  the  vegetable  matter,  are  growing. 

Cultivated  crops,  as  corn,  probably  return  as  much 
vegetable  matter  to  the  soil  in  the  roots  and  stubble  as  do 
the  grain  crops,  but  they  use  during  their  growth  a  great 
deal  more  than  the  grain  crops,  on  account  of  the  cultiva- 
tion given  them.  We  have  learned  that  moisture  and  air 
are  essential  to  decomposition.  By  the  cultivation  of  these 
crops  the  soil  is  loosened  on  top,  so  that  air  can  enter  freely 
and  so  that  moisture  does  not  rise  to  the  surface  to  evaporate, 
as  it  rises  in  a  grain  field  that  is  not  cultivated  while  the 
crop  is  growing.  Thus  the  two  essentials  to  decomposition, 
air  and  moisture,  are  maintained.  Consequently  decomposi- 
tion is  more  rapid  and  more  of  the  vegetable  matter  is 
decomposed. 

A  rotation  which  provides  for  growing  grass  on  one 
third  of  the  tillable  land  furnishes  a  great  deal  of  pasture 
and  hay,  which  usually  is  an  incentive  to  keep  more 
live  stock.  Hence  more  manure  is  produced  than  is  usually 
available  on  a  grain  farm.  More  manure  can  be  appUed 
to  the  fields;  and  this,  too,  has  a  marked  effect  in  keeping 
up  the  supply  of  vegetable  matter. 
Questions: 

1.  What  is  generally  lacking  when  a  soil  ceases  to  be  productive? 

2.  In  what  ways  does  the  rotation  of  crops  tend  to  increase  the 
supply  of  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil? 

3.  How  can  you  prove  that  grass  crops  add  more  vegetable 
matter  to  the  soil  than  grain  crops? 

Arithmetic: 

1.  It  costs  $13.04  per  acre  to  grow  a  crop  of  oats.  How  much 
will  it  cost  to  grow  33  >^  acres  of  oats? 

'  2.     It  costs  $16.20  per  acre  to  grow  a  crop  of  corn.     How  much 
will  it  cost  to  grow  333^  acres  of  corn? 


FARM  MANAGEMENT  327 

3.  It  costs  $9.50  per  acre  to  grow  a  crop  of  mixed  hay.  How 
much  will  it  cost  to  grow  33  3^  acres  of  mixed  hay? 

4.  It  costs  $13.07  per  acre  to  grow  a  crop  of  wheat.  How  much 
will  it  cost  to  grow  100  acress  of  wheat? 

5.  Using  the  figures  given  in  the  preceding  examples,  how  much 
more  does  it  cost  to  grow  100  acres  of  wheat  than  to  crop  100  acres 
in  a  rotation  with  ^  in  corn,  3^  in  oats  and  }4  in  hay? 

PLANNING  FARMS 

Farm  and  Farmer. — In  the  last  few  pages  we  have 
learned  something  about  the  rotation  of  crops,  its  effects 
on  the  soil,  and  how  to  tell  whether  or  not  a  certain  rota- 
tion would  be  likely  to  keep  the  soil  in  good  condition  and 
give  good  yields.  Before  we  can  plan  a  suitable  rotation 
for  any  particular  farm  we  must  know  certain  facts  about 
the  farm  and  the  farmer. 

Sketch  of  Farm. — We  should  have  a  rough  sketch  of 
the  farm  in  question,  showing  its  shape  and  size,  the  loca- 
tion of  the  farmstead  (farmstead  includes  buildings,  yards, 
orchards,  garden,  drives  and  lawn),  the  size  and  shape  of 
the  fields  and  pasture,  the  fences  and  lanes  and  the  sloughs 
and  waste  places.  We  should  know  also  the  kind  of  soil, 
the  location  of  the  farm,  the  amount  and  yields  of  the 
different  crops  grown,  the  markets,  and  the  ability  and 
desires  of  the  farmer. 

The  Farmstead. — The  location  of  the  farmstead  deter- 
mines the  distance  each  field  will  be  from  the  base  of  opera- 
tion, the  distance  live  stock  will  have  to  go  to  pasture  on 
the  different  fields,  the  amount  of  lane  necessary  to  reach 
them,  and  whether  or  not  they  must  be  driven  across  a 
public  road  or  a  railway  track. 

The  size  and  shape  of  the  fields  will  determine  the  size 
and  kinds  of  machines  that  may  be  used  and  the  type  of 
farming  to  be  done.  If  there  are  only  a  few  small  and 
irregular  fields,  one  cannot  grow  grain  to  advantage  and 
compete  with  farmers  who  have  large,  straight,  level  fields. 
On  the  few  small  fields  the  farmer  would  need  to  grow 
some  crop  he  could  care  for  to  advantage  with  small  ma- 
chines, and  he  would  also  want  to  grow  some  crop  that 
would  bring  in  considerable  per  acre.  Five  to  ten  acres 
of  grain  or  corn  would  not  produce  an  income  large  enough 
to  support  a  family;  but  five  or  ten  acres  in  small  fruit  or 


328 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


vegetables  would  insure  products  of  sufficient  value  to  make 
a  good  income  and  provide  labor  for  a  fair-sized  family. 

Fencing. — The  amount  of  fencing  on  a  farm  and  the 
cost  per  acre  of  fencing  the  various  fields  are  factors  which 
would  influence  one  in  deciding  on  the  kind  and  amount  of 
live  stock  to  be  kept. 

Waste  land,  or  land  which  for  some  reason  cannot  be 
cultivated  with  the  regular  fields,  must  be  considered  in 


Figure  142. — It  costs  much  more  per 
acre  to  plow  a  small  irregular  field 
like  the  above,  than  a  long  field  as 
shown  in  Figure  143. 


Figure  143. — Plowing  a  long,  regular 
field.  Compare  with  Figure  142. 
Which  field  would  you  prefer  to 
plow? 


planning  a  rotation.  If  there  is  any  considerable  amount 
of  such  land  that  can  be  used  only  for  hay  or  pasture,  stock 
must  be  provided  to  utilize  this  feed,  and  very  likely  a 
smaller  proportion  of  the  tillable  land  would  be  needed  for 
hay  and  pasture,  so  that  a  correspondingly  larger  acreage 
could  be  devoted  to  other  crops. 

Soil  and  location  determine  the  kind  of  products  that 
can  be  raised  and  the  kinds  desirable  to  raise.  One  must 
not  plan  a  rotation  providing  for  a  large  acreage  of  corn, 
in  a  community  or  on  a  soil  not  adapted  to  corn  production. 
Likewise  it  would  not  be  well  to  plan  to  raise  a  heavy  bulky 
crop,  like  potatoes,  where  one  is  a  long  distance  from  market, 
or  to  keep  dairy  stock  where  facilities  are  poor  for  market- 
ing dairy  products,  or  to  keep  beef  stock  or  hogs  where 
grain  feed,  as  corn  or  barley,  is  difficult  to  grow. 


FARM    MANAGEMENT  329 

The  acreage  and  yields  of  the  different  crops  that  have 
been  grown  are  good  indications  of  the  type  of  farming 
carried  on  in  the  community,  the  condition  of  the  farm  and 
the  kind  of  farming  with  which  the  owner  is  familiar  and 
best  adapted  to  do. 

The  ability  and  desires  of  the  farmer  are  probably  the 
most  important  consideration.  If  a  man  does  not  like  live 
stock  or  a  certain  kind  of  farming,  it  is  very  likely  that  he 
will  not  succeed  with  it,  though  the  plan  of  managing  the 
farm  might  be  excellent.  Likewise  a  farmer  might  have 
abihty  as  a  market  gardener  or  in  raising  horses  or  sheep, 
but  might  fail  at  dairying  or  general  farming. 
Questions: 

1.  What  are  some  of  the  facts  we  should  know  about  a  farm 
to  enable  us  to  plan  a  suitable  rotation? 

2.  What  does  the  location  of  the  farm  determine? 

3.  What  should  the  size  and  shape  of  the  fields  determine?  The 
amount  of  fencing?  The  waste  land?  The  soil  and  location?  The 
size  of  the  farm  and  yields? 

Arithmetic: 

1.  If  one  raises  10  acres  of  wheat  yielding  20  bus.  per  acre,  how 
much  is  the  crop  worth  at  85c.  per  bushel? 

2.  If  one  raises  10  acres  of  potatoes  yielding  150  bus.  per  acre, 
how  much  is  the  crop  worth  at  60c.  per  bushel? 

3.  If  one  raises  10  acres  of  onions  yielding  400  bus.  per  acre,  how 
much  is  the  crop  worth  at  60c.  per  bushel? 

ARRANGEMBNT  OF  FIELDS 

A  Map. — If  one  were  to  make  a  map  of  the  average 
farm,  showing  all  the  fields  as  the  farm  is  cropped  for  one 
year,  one  would  be  likely  to  be  surprised  at  the  number  of 
fields  and  their  irregular  shape.  Often  a  little  careful  plan- 
ning will  result  in  a  great  saving  of  time  and  labor. 

Fields  for  a  Rotation. — If  the  rotation  of  crops  is  to  be 
practiced,  the  farm  must  be  divided  into  as  many  fields  as 
there  are  years  in  the  rotation  or  rotations.  To  do  this  in 
a  way  to  be  most  economical  of  fences  and  to  get  the  fields 
properly  located,  necessitates  a  careful  study  of  conditions. 
In  arranging  the  fields  of  any  farm  it  is  desirable  to 

(1)  Have  fields  of  uniform  size. 

(2)  Have  fields  of  convenient  shape  to  work. 

(3)  Have  one  end  of  each  field   as  near  to  the  farm- 

stead as  possible. 


330 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


(4)  Economize  in  fencing. 

(5)  Make  the  best  use  of  all  parts  of  the  farm. 
Uniform  Size. — Fields  should  be  of  uniform  size  to  make 

the  farming  business  systematic,  so  a  like  amount  of  various 
crops  may  be  grown  each  year.  This  method  regulates  the 
amount  of  labor  and  machinery  needed  and  of  live  stock  that 
may  be  kept,  and  makes  possible  a  really  systematic  arrange- 
ment of  the  farm  business. 

Shape. — As  a  rule  long  fields  are  more  desirable  than 
square  ones,  as  machines  can  be  used  on  such  fields  to  better 
advantage,  but  this  suggestion  must  not  be  overdone,  espe- 
cially if  the  fields  are  to  be  fenced,  for  long  fields  require 
more  fencing  per  acre  than  shorter  ones. 

Distance  from  Farmstead. — A  great  many  trips  must  be 
made  each  year  to  each  field  and  a  difference  of  several 
rods  in  distance  from  the  farm  buildings  makes  a  great 
difference  in  a  year  or  in  a  Hfetime.  Figure  144  illustrates 
a  160-acre  farm  in  Minnesota,  (a)  as  the  fields  were  arranged, 
and  (b)  as  they  are  planned  for  a  systematic  rotation. 
This  whole  farm  is  tillable.  A  study  of  these  two  plans 
shows  that  by  the  rearrangement  of  fields  there  will  be  a 
saving  of  252  rods  of  fencing,  if  all  fields  were  to  be  fenced. 
In  the  new  plan,  the  fields  are  of  excellent  shape  to  work, 
are  all  the  same  size,  and  the  average  distance  of  the  fields 


/<^c  ro^s 


/2/f. 

72 
/8^ 

40 

/5 

20 

40 

\ 
£8 

72 
27/f. 

7a 

/So    '^'/s 


(o-) 


o                  3o^ 

30^. 

^                 3o^ 

^            3o7r 

%                  Jo^ 

/o/r 

177 


Fit;ure  144 
ranged, 
pure  with  (b) 


(a)   Fields  poorly  arranged,     (b)  Field*  well  ar- 
ranged.    Note  amount  of  fencing  required  to  enclose  all  fields  in  (a)  and  com- 


A   160-acre  farm. 


FARM   MANAGEMENT 


331 


from  the  farmstead  is  24  rods,  while  in  the  old  plan  the 
average  distance  of  the  fields  is  70  rods. 

Economize  in  Fencing. — The  size  and  shape  of  fields 
have  much  to  do  with  the  amount  of  fencing  required  to 
enclose  an  acre.     Figure  145.     See  arithmetic  lesson  below. 

If  one  wishes  to  divide  an  80-acre  farm  into  five  fields 
of  equal  size,  there  is  room  for  study.     The  proper  solution 


Soroas  ^ 


io 


^ 


/^ 

7T 

7^ 

76 

7Z 

26  6 

26  6 

2^.1 

4^ 

Figure  145. — An  80-acre  farm  divided  into  five  fields  in  three  different  ways.     Fig- 
ure the  amount  of  fencing  required  to  enclose  the  fields  in  each  case. 

may  mean  quite  a  saving  in  fencing  and  in  operating  the 
fields.  The  three  plans,  a  b,  and  c,  in  Figure  145,  illustrate 
three  ways  of  dividing  an  80-acre  farm  into  five  equal  sized 
fields.  An  80-acre  farm  is  usually  80  rods  wide  and  160 
rods  long.  If  it  is  divided  as  shown  in  (a),  640  rods  of 
fencing  would  be  required  for  the  inside  fences.  If  divided 
as  shown  in  (b),  448  rods  would  be  required,  and  if  divided 
as  shown  in  (c)  only  426  rods  would  be  required. 

Questions: 

1.  What  are  the  advantages  of  having  fields  uniform  in  size,  if 
one  practices  a  rotation  of  crops? 

2.  Can  a  farm  be  so  divided  as  to  make  any  difference  in  the 
average  distance  of  fields  from  the  farmstead? 

3.  What  effect  does  the  shape  of  fields  have  on  the  amount  of 
fencing  required  per  acre  to  enclose  them? 

Arithmetic: 

1.     How  many  acres  of  land  in  a  field  1  rod  wide  and  160  rods 


332 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


long?     How  many  rods  of  fencing  arc  rcfiuircd  to  enclose  it?     (i60 
square  rods  in  an  acre.) 

2.  How  many  acres  in  a  piece  of  land  16  rods  by  10  rods?  How 
many  rods  of  fencing  are  required  to  enclose  it? 

3.  How  many  acres  of  land  in  a  field  40  rods  square?  How 
many  rods  of  fencing  are  required  to  enclose  it?  How  many  rods 
of  fencing  are  required  per  acre? 

4.  How  many  acres  in  a  field  80  rods  square?     How  many  rods 

of  fencing  are  required  to  enclose  it?     How  many  rods  of  fencing 

per  acre? 

A  PRACTICAL  ROTATION 

Application. — To  apply  the  principles  of  crop  rotation 
and  farm  planning  to  an  actual  farm,  we  will  study  one  on 

which  a  good  system  of 
rotation  has  been  prac- 
ticed for  several  years. 

The  farm  we  will  take 
is  a  160-acre  farm,  one  and 
a  half  miles  from  a  good 
town.  The  soil  is  light, 
sandy  loam.  The  owner 
specializes  in  growing  po- 
tatoes and  live  stock.  He 
is  a  very  careful  farmer, 
a  study  of  whose  methods 
and  farm  will  be  valuable. 
The  accompanying 

chart.   Figure  146,  shows 

-A  160-acre  farm  on  which  a  the  lay  of  the  farm  and 

three-year   rotation    has    been   successfully   ^j^g      arrangement     of     the 
followed  for  a  number  of  years.  <^    i  i  -k.t         i       i      li*     r    xi 

fields.  Nearly  half  of  the 
farm,  the  back  part,  is  broken  up  by  a  river  and  bluffs 
so  that  it  is  not  tillable  and  can  be  used  only  for  pasture. 
The  remainder,  or  90  acres,  is  all  well  drained,  reasonably 
level  and  easily  worked. 

The  Rotation. — The  90  acres  of  tillable  land  is  divided 
into  three  30-acre  fields,  or  rather  two  30-acre  fields  and  a 
10  and  a  20-acre  field.  These  two  smaller  fields  are  farmed 
as  though  they  were  only  one  field;  so  they  make  the  third 
30-acre  field.  One  field  raises  grain,  one  field  raises  clover 
and  one  field  raises  corn  and  potatoes  each  year,  but  no 
field  grows  the  same  kind  of  a  crop  two  years  in  succession. 


PMMANENT 

^^^^^^^•^          PASTURt. 

^ 

ZO  A 

30  A 

\/ 

10  A 

v/ 

30  A 

•06.0ATS 

•07-cioveR 

AHO  HAnuw 
•0»-COKti 

•o»-cto»eR««ofi««e 

•0«-OAT» 

'07- OATS 
•Oa-CLOVfrRAMO 

MAMune-. 

OATS 

fARM- 

sreAO. 

FARM    MANAGEMENT  333 

The  Potato  Crop. — The  chief  field  crop  that  is  raised 
for  sale  is  potatoes;  so  the  whole  farm  is  planned  to  give 
good  crops  of  potatoes.  The  first  crop  of  clover  is  cut  for 
hay.  Sometimes  the  second  crop  is  cut  for  seed,  but  more 
often  it  is  plowed  under  to  add  plant  food  for  the  potato 
crop  which  is  to  follow.  All  the  manure  made  on  the  farm 
is  also  appUed  to  the  clover  land.  The  clover  and  manure 
have  made  the  land  rich  and  the  clover  crop  has  aided  in 
cleaning  it  of  weeds.  The  potatoes  have  a  clean,  rich  soil 
in  which  to  grow. 

Com. — Only  a  part  of  the  clover  sod  plowed  up  is  planted 
to  potatoes.  The  remainder  is  planted  to  corn.  The  corn 
and  potatoes  are  regarded  as  one  crop  in  the  rotation,  since 
they  are  both  cultiyated  crops  and  have  about  the  same 
effect  on  the  soil.  He  gives  his  corn  land  the  same  careful 
preparation  that  he  gives  his  potato  land,  and  consequently 
gets  good  crops. 

Oats. — After  he  has  grown  his  crop  of  com  and  potatoes 
he  wishes  to  seed  his  land  to  clover  again,  because  he  has 
found  that  it  is  the  best  crop  he  can  raise  to  put  his  land 
in  good  condition  for  corn  and  potatoes  again;  besides,  he 
needs  the  clover  hay  for  his  cows.  As  clover  must  be  sown 
with  a  grain  crop,  he  seeds  this  corn  and  potato  land  the 
following  spring  to  oats.  With  oats  he  sows  clover  and 
timothy  seed  for  a  crop  the  year  after  the  oats  are  harvested. 

Clover. — Getting  a  catch  of  clover  is  the  key  to  his 
success  as  a  farmer;  so  he  takes  every  precaution  to  be 
sure  of  a  stand.  The  cultivation  given  the  corn  and  potatos 
saves  moisture,  and  the  manure  and  clover  in  the  soil  give 
up  plant  food,  so  that  there  is  more  moisture  and  plant 
food  in  such  land  the  following  year  than  there  would  be  if 
the  field  had  been  pastured  or  had  grown  a  crop  of  grain. 
This  extra  moisture  and  plant  food  help  to  start  the  clover 
seed  sown  with  the  oats  the  year  after  the  land  grows  com 
and  potatoes. 

Results. — That  this  kind  of  farming  pays  is  shown  by 
results.  Besides  good  crops  of  clover,  corn  and  oats,  the 
potato  crop  on  this  farm  brings  from  $60.00  to  $100.00  per 
acre  annually.  As  it  costs  about  $30.00  per  acre  to  raise 
potatoes,  it  is  plain  that  there  is  a  profit  on  these  crops. 


334  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Questions: 

1.  What  is  the  rotation  practiced  on  the  farm  discussed  above? 

2.  How  is  the  land  prepared  for  potatoes? 

3.  What  crop  follows  potatoes  and  corn  in  this  rotation? 

4.  What  crop  follows  the  oat  crop,  and  when  is  it  seeded? 
Arithmetic: 

1.  If  a  farmer  raises  15  acres  of  potatoes  each  year,  how  many 
bushels  will  he  have,  if  the  yield  is  165  bus.  per  acre? 

2.  If  Mr.  Brown  raises  15  acres  of  corn  each  year,  how  many  bush- 
els will  he  have,  if  the  yield  is  50  bus.  per  acre? 

3.  If  oats  yield  48  bus.  per  acre,  how  many  bushels  will  30  acres 
produce? 

A  FIVE-YEAR  ROTATION 

Rearrangement  of  a  Farm. — A  160-acre  farm  in  south- 
eastern Minnesota,  four  miles  from  a  good  milk  market 
was  cropped  in  1904  as  shown  in  Figure  147.  This  farmer 
was  carrying  on  general  diversified  farming,  and  without 
changing  the  type  of  farming  in  the  least,  his  farm  was 
replanned  and  a  systematic  rotation  of  crops  arranged 
that  would  certainly  make  the  farm  more  attractive,  more 
easily  worked,  and  more  productive,  if  put  in  practice.  In 
Figure  147  note  the  small  and  irregular  fields,  the  distance 
some  of  them  are  from  the  farmstead,  and  the  lack  of  system 
in  cropping. 

Without  materially  changing  the  amount  of  land  de- 
voted to  each  kind  of  crop  this  farm  may  be  rearranged  in 
five  uniform  fields  of  convenient  shape  and  size  (27  acres 
each)  and  one  end  of  each  field  be  as  near  to  the  farmstead 
as  is  easily  possible  on  such  a  farm.  See  Figure  148.  The 
12-acre  field  in  the  southwest  corner  is  too  wet  to  cultivate; 
so  it  is  left  as  permanent  meadow. 

Rotation. — A  five-year  rotation  would  be  well  adapted 
to  such  a  farm,  as  it  would  provide  about  the  same  amount 
of  hay  and  pasturage  as  was  formerly  used.  This  rotation 
would  be  corn,  grain,  meadow  and  pasture.  That  is,  one 
field  would  produce  corn,  two  fields  would  produce  grain, 
one  would  produce  hay  and  one  would  produce  pasture 
each  year.  The  field  that  grows  corn  the  first  year  would 
produce  grain  the  second  and  third  years,  meadow  the 
fourth  year,  and  pasture  the  fifth  year. 

The  Grain  Crops. — The  first  grain  crop  after  the  corn 
would  be  sown  on  the  corn  land,  usually  without  plowing 


FARM    MANAGEMENT 


335 


but  simply  disking  it  well  so  as  to  make  a  good  seed  bed. 
After  this  grain  crop  was  harvested  the  land  would  be 
plowed  in  the  fall,  so  that  it  would  have  time  to  settle  down 
and  become  compact  by  spring.  The  next  spring  it  would 
be  sown  to  grain  again,  but,  with  the  grain,  grass  seed, 
timothy  and  clover  would  be  sown  to  make  the  crop  for  the 
two  years  following. 

Meadow. — We  have  learned  that  grass  crops  as  meadow 
and  pasture  are  beneficial  to  the  soil,  as  they  clean  it  of 


Oats 


J9ar/ey 


Oata 
/90-*  a 


/■  Pasture 

S-Oruin  j-T^ 

3.Corn  ^^'^ 

■*  Cram  >Cras^ 

S  Grass  /3^^rd 


ntitftsreto 


Craa 
Z  Pasture 
IGrain. 
/  Corn, 
^Gratrt  h> 
<yrasi       » 

9i 


iGratH  >Cr 
ZOrass 
.  3/^Sturt 
N  ^Qraift, 


44Jini. 


Permanent  ^eaeiou> 


/■Corn, 

ZCrain*Gt 

iOrass 

f^tsture 
■iGrat  n. 

ZFa  ^ 


/Grain 

2  Corn 

3  Oratn  ^Gr. 
aifrusm 

i  Pasture 


J*.9rti  I  J^.9ra. 


Figure  147. — A  160-acre  farm  in  southeastern  Minnesota,  cropped  in  1904.  Com- 
pare with  the  reorganization  plan  in  Figure  148. 

Figure  148. — The  160-acre  farm  reorganized  for  a  five-year  rotation.  Note  con- 
venient shape  and  arrangement  of  fields,  and  that  there  is  little  change  in  the 
acreage  of  crops  grown.  The  fields  are  simply  arranged  better  and  a  systematic 
rotation  planned. 

weeds  and  add  vegetable  matter.  This  rotation  provides 
for  having  each  field  in  grass  two  years  out  of  five.  The 
first  year  the  grass  would  be  cut  for  hay  and  the  second 
year  it  would  be  pastured. 

Pasture. — Pasturing  land  occasionally,  as  provided  in 
this  rotation,  is  beneficial  to  the  soil,  as  practically  all 
the  crop  grown  during  the  year  is  left  on  the  field  as  manure, 
and  the  development  of  the  roots  adds  vegetable  matter 
also.  Pasturing  usually  puts  land  in  good  condition  for 
other  crops.  One  can  haul  manure  upon  it  during  the  summer, 
when  the  other  fields  are  growing  crops.  This  manure 
plowed  under  with  the  pasture  sod  makes  a  good  seed  bed 
for  corn. 


336  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Com. — In  this  rotation  corn  is  planted  on  manured 
pasture  sod  each  year.  This  is  a  very  desirable  place  for 
corn,  and  usually  results  in  good  yields. 

Study  the  accompanying  charts  and,  if  possible,  draw 
them  and  put  in  the  crop  that  would  be  grown  on  each  field 
each  year.  The  figures  1,  2,  3,  4  and  5  indicate  the  1st, 
2nd,  3rd,  4th  and  5th  years  of  the  rotation.  Each  crop  is 
produced  each  year. 

This  five-year  rotation  is  a  good  one  for  many  farms, 
and  every  farm  boy  ten  years  old  and  over  should  thoroughly 
understand  it  and  its  advantages  over  no  rotation. 

Such  a  rotation  tends  to  keep  the  fields  clean  of  weeds, 
productive,  and  to  economize  labor.  Each  field  is  plowed 
but  twice  in  five  years  and  seeded  but  three  times  in  the 
five  years.  Still  it  is  kept  in  good  condition  for  the  crop 
it  is  to  grow,  because  the  crops  are  so  arranged  that  each 
crop  helps  to  fit  the  soil  for  the  one  that  follows. 
Questions: 

1.  What  is  the  five-year  rotation  described  above? 

2.  If  one  had  five  20-acre  fields  cropped  to  the  above  5-year 
rotation,  how  many  acres  of  grain  would  one  raise  each  year?  How 
many  acres  of  corn?     Of  pasture? 

3.  In  what  ways  does  the  five-year  rotation  described  above  aid 
in  cleaning  the  land  of  weeds? 

Arithmetic: 

1.  If  a  farmer  on  the  above  160-acre  farm  kept  15  cows,  8  two- 
year-olds,  10  yearlings  and  12  calves,  how  many  head  of  cattle  would 
he  have? 

2.  If  each  cow  required  1  acre  of  pasture  for  the  summer,  each 
two-yearHDld  ^  acre,  and  each  yearling  3^  acre,  how  many  acres  of 
pasture  would  be  needed? 

3.  If  each  cow  required,  during  the  winter,  2}4  tons  of  hay, 
each  two-year-old  2  tons,  each  yearling  I  ton,  and  each  calf  }i  oi  & 
ton,  how  many  tons  of  hay  would  be  needed? 

4.  If  the  27  acres  of  rotation  meadow  produced  two  tons  per 
acre,  and  the  12  acres  of  permanent  meadow  produced  1^^  tons  per 
acre,  how  many  tons  of  hay  would  the  farm  produce? 

FARM  ACCOUNTS 

Bookkeeping. — One  of  the  first  essentials  of  successful 
farm  management  is  a  set  of  accounts  that  will  show  which 
enterprises  are  paying  and  which  are  not.  To  keep  a  com- 
plete set  of  books  for  all  the  enterprises  on  a  farm  requires 
considerable  time  and  training,   but  most  any  farmer  or 


FARM   MANAGEMENT  337 

boy  or  girl  can,  with  little  effort,  keep  a  reasonably  accurate 
account  of  one  or  more  of  the  leading  enterprises  on  his 
own  farm.  We  will  not  try  to  give  a  complete  system  of 
farm  bookkeeping,  as  too  much  space  and  study  would  be 
required,  but  we  do  wish  to  study  with  our  readers  some 
of  the  problems  of  farm  management  affecting  a  few  of  the 
more  general  enterprises  of  the  average  farm,  and  to  show 
the  application  of  accounts  and  figures  to  farming  as  a 
business,  and  the  value  of  their  use. 

Enterprises. — Some  of  the  main  enterprises  on  the  gen- 
eral farm  are:  Horses,  Cattle,  Sheep,  Hogs,  Poultry,  Fruit, 
Grain,  Hay,  or,  in  short,  any  of  the  various  classes  of  prod- 
ucts produced.  If  a  farmer  keeps  only  a  cash  account 
showing  the  receipts  from  products  sold  and  the  amount 
spent,  while  he  might  make  a  profit  on  the  whole  farm,  he 
might  lose  on  sheep,  hogs  or  some  of  the  other  enterprises, 
and  not  know  it.  If  he  had  an  account  with  each  enter- 
prise, he  would  know  on  which  he  was  losing  and  on  which 
he  was  making  a  profit,  and  could  plan  his  future  work  so 
as  to  increase  the  profitable  lines  and  decrease  or  improve 
the  unprofitable  ones. 

The  Fanner  as  a  Merchant. — The  farmer  buys  and  sells 
products  just  as  truly  as  the  merchant.  The  way  he  buys 
most  of  the  products  he  sells  is  somewhat  compUcated. 
He  seldom  knows,  without  accounts,  just  how  much  any 
particular  thing,  as  a  hog  cr  bushel  of  grain,  has  cost  him. 
The  cost  of  a  product  of  the  field  to  a  farmer  includes  rent 
on  land,  seed,  man  and  horse  labor  in  preparing  the  land, 
seeding,  cultivating,  harvesting,  machinery  cost;  also  any 
cash  expenditure,  as  for  twine,  oil  or  threshing.  The  cost 
of  a  live  stock  product  includes  labor,  feed,  shelter,  interest 
on  investment  and  depreciation.  It  is  not  difficult  to  keep 
a  fairly  accurate  account  of  some  leading  enterprises,  and 
it  gives  a  much  better  grasp  of  business  than  can  be  gotten 
in  any  other  way. 

Land  Rent. — Land  rent  is  one  of  the  items  of  cost  in 
crop  production  that  must  be  considered.  This  cost  is 
very  evident  if  one  does  not  own  the  land,  but  pays  rent 
for  the  use  of  it.  If  the  farmer  owns  land  himself  he  must 
charge  a  fair  rent  per  acre  against  each  crop,  because  he 

22— 


338  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

expects  his  money  invested  to  be  worth  a  certain  rate  of 
interest.  That  is,  he  c'ould  loan  his  money  at  a  fair  rate 
of  interest,  if  it  were  not  invested  in  the  farm.  If  he  did 
not  consider  rent  as  an  item  of  cost  against  each  crop,  he 
might  apparently  make  a  profit  in  his  farming  operations 
while  in  reality  he  was  losing — that  is,  growing  crops  at  a 
loss,  but  making  more  than  wages  on  his  labor  on  account 
of  the  income  on  his  investment.  In  such  case,  he  had 
better  sell  his  farm  and  loan  his  money  at  5%  or  6%  interest. 

Questions: 

1.  For  what  reasons  should  a  farmer  keep  accounts? 

2.  In  what  way  does  a  farmer  buy  the  hogs,  milk,  etc.,  that  he 
sells  from  the  farm? 

3.  Why  is  land  rent  one  of  the  items  in  the  cost  of  production, 
even  though  a  man  may  own  his  land? 

Arithmetic: 

1.  If  a  farmer  feeds  a  cow  each  day  for  200  days  25  lbs.  of  hay 
worth  $5.00  per  ton  and  6  lbs.  of  grain  worth  $20.00  per  ton,  what  is 
the  cost  for  feed  for  the  200  days? 

2.  If  pasture  for  a  cow  is  worth  $1.00  per  month,  what  is  the 
cost  of  pasturing  a  cow  165  days? 

3.  If  3^  hour  per  day  is  required  to  care  for  a  cow  during  the 
200  days  she  is  kept  in  the  barn,  and  }4  hour  per  day  for  the  165  days 
she  is  pastured,  how  many  hours  of  labor  are  required  to  care  for  a 
cow  a  year?     What  is  this  labor  worth  at  18c.  per  hour? 

4.  What  is  the  total  cost  of  feed  and  labor  for  the  cow  for  the 
year?  How  many  pounds  of  butter-fat  must  she  give  in  the  year  to 
pay  for  these  items,  if  butter-fat  is  worth  30c.  per  pound? 

LIVE  STOCK  ACCOUNTS 

Making  Work  Interesting. — Nearly  every  farm  boy, 
while  he  is  attending  school,  has  more  or  less  work  with 
the  stock  at  home.  This  work  done  mornings  and  even- 
ings, often  under  unfavorable  conditions,  is  sometimes  un- 
interesting to  say  the  least,  though  it  is  as  valuable  a  part 
of  one's  education  as  are  the  things  one  learns  at  school. 
Keeping  records  with  the  various  classes  of  stock,  so  that 
one  knows  which  class  is  giving  the  best  returns  for  feed 
and  the  highest  price  per  hour  for  labor,  adds  to  the  work 
an  interest  that  can  be  gained  in  no  other  way. 

In  order  to  know  the  profits  or  losses  of  an  enterprise, 
certain  charges  must  be  made  and  deducted  from  the  value 
of  the  product.  The  main  charges  against  live  stock  are: 
depreciation,  interest  on  investment,  feed,  labor,  shelter. 


FARM    MANAGEMENT  339 

Depreciation  is  the  difference  between  the  value  of  any 
property  at  the  beginning  and  at  the  end  of  the  period  dur- 
ing which  an  account  is  kept  of  it.  For  example,  if,  at  the 
beginning  of  a  year,  one  has  ten  cows  worth  $400,  and  at 
the  close  of  the  year  they  are  worth  less  or  he  has  lost  or 
sold  some,  so  that  the  total  value  of  cows  on  hand  is  but 
$350,  there  will  have  been  a  depreciation  in  value  of  $50, 


Figure  149. — A  fine  bunch  of  hogs.  The  questions  one  should  be  able  to  answer 
after  producing  a  lot  of  hogs  are:  How  much  did  they  cost  per  pound?  How 
many  pounds  of  corn  or  other  feed  did  it  take  per  pound  of  pork,  etc. 

which  must  be  accounted  for  in  the  charges  against 
the  stock.  Likewise  there  may  be  a  gain  in  the  value  of  the 
stock  for  a  given  period.  If  so,  it  must  be  credited  to  the 
enterprise.  This  loss  or  gain  is  most  easily  accounted  for 
by  taking  an  inventory  at  the  beginning  of  the  year — that 
is,  making  an  estimate  of  the  value  of  the  stock  on  hand 
and  charging  the  enterprise  with  this  amount,  then  credit- 
ing the  enterprise  with  the  inventory  value  at  the  close  of 
the  year. 

Interest  on  the  investments  must  also  be  charged  against 
an  enterprise,  if  an  accurate  knowledge  of  loss  or  gain  is  to 
be  had;  because,  if  the  money  invested  in  stock  were  loaned, 
it  would  earn  a  certain  rate  of  interest.     One  would  not  care 


340 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


to  invest  money  in  stock  if  one  could  not  get  as  much  in- 
terest on  it  as  if  it  were  invested  in  some  other  enterprise. 
A  very  common  rate  of  interest  is  6%.  Thus,  if  one  had 
$400  invested  in  Uve  stock  for  a  year,  one  of  the  charges 

against  the  stock  would 
be  an  interest  charge  of 
$24,  as  that  is  the  amount 
$400  would  earn,  if  loaned 
at  6%. 

Feed. — The  value  of 
all  feed  consumed  must 
be  charged  to  the  stock. 
This  is  usually  the  only 
charge  considered,  but 
it  is  evident  that  the 
other  items  mentioned 
are  as  legitimate  charges. 
It  seems  at  first  thought 
that  it  would  be  difficult 
to  keep  account  of  the 
amount  of  feed  fed  to 
each  cow  or  to  all  the 
cows,  but  very  Httle  time 
is  required  to  get  ap- 
proximately the  amount 
fed  for  a  month.  If  one 
carefully  weighs,  for  a 
few  days,  the  hay  and 
•^grain  that  are  fed,  one 
can  soon  learn  to  feed 
about  the  desired  amount 
without  weighing,  but  simply  by  using  the  same  measure 
for  grain  and  giving  about  the  same  sized  forkful  of  hay 
or  the  same  number  of  bundles  of  fodder.  When  one 
knows  about  the  amount  of  feed  fed  per  day,  the  amount 
fed  per  month  can  be  ascertained  by  multiplying  it  by  the 
number  of  days  in  the  month. 

Labor  or  any  work  done  in  caring  for  any  class  of  live 
stock  or  marketing  the  product  must  be  charged  against 
the  enterprise;  because,  if  a  man  hires  labor,  he  must  pay 


Figure  150. — ;Weighing  hay.  If  one  weighs 
hay  a  few  times  when  feeding  one  will  soon 
be  able  to  tell  approximately  how  much 
one  is  feeding  without  weighing  it  every 
time. 


FARM    MANAGEMENT  341 

for  it,  or,  if  he  does  the  work  himself,  he  is  entitled  to  wages. 
With  a  little  thought,  one  can  determine  about  the  amount 
of  time  required  each  day  to  care  for  any  class  of  Uve  stock; 
and,  by  multiplying  the  amount  by  the  number  of  days  in 
the  month,  can  get  the  amount  of  work  done  in  the  month. 
Cost  of  shelter  is  not  so  easy  to  determine;  yet  it  is  an 
actual  cost  against  the  live  stock.  An  easy  way  to  get 
the  approximate  cost  for  shelter,  is  to  find  out  the  value 
of  the  building  or  part  of  the  building  in  which  the  stock 
is  kept,  then  figure  8%  of  this  value  as  the  annual  cost  of 
shelter.  The  8%  will  allow  for  interest,  insurance,  taxes, 
repairs  and  depreciation. 
Questions: 

1.  What  will  add  an  interest  to  caring  for  stock? 

2.  What  are  the  main  charges  to  be  made  against  live  stock? 

3.  Explain  each  charge. 
Arithmetic: 

1.  On  Jan.  1st,  1914,  a  barn  is  worth  $1,000.  On  Jan.  1st,  1915, 
it  is  worth  $950.  How  much  has  it  depreciated  in  value?  How 
long  will  it  last,  if  it  depreciates  the  same  amount  each  year? 

2.  If  a  $50  cow  lives  ten  years,  what  is  her  annual  depreciation? 

3.  If  a  bam  that  shelters  40  head  of  stock  costs  $2,000,  how 
much  is  the  annual  cost  of  shelter,  if  one  figures  8%  on  value  of  barn? 
How  much  is  the  annual  cost  of  shelter  per  animal? 

AN  ACCOUNT  WITH  A  COW 

Actual  Figures. — To  simplify  the  account  with  the 
dairy  stock  and  to  illustrate  what  any  boy  may  do  at  home 
with  some  cow  he  is  milking  and  caring  for,  we  will  use  a 
record  which  shows  the  average  results  per  cow  for  a  year 
in  a  herd  of  14  cows  of  which  an  accurate  record  was  kept. 

A  Business  Statement  Showing  the  Cost  and  Inconfe  of  One  Cow 
for  the  Year  1908.  Dr.        Cr. 

Int.  on  investment  at  6% $  2.40 

Value  of  grain  fed 10.46 

Value  of  roughage  fed 12.29 

Value  of  pasturage 5.00 

Cost  of  labor 23.28 

Cost  of  shelter 3.20 

Miscellaneous  expense 1.50 

Net  profit :• 43 

Income  for  year ^ $58.56 

$58.56  $58.56 
(Note. — ^The  43c.  net  profit  was  obtained  by  deducting  the  sum 
of  the  seven  items  of  expense,  $58.13,  from  the  $58.56  income.) 


342 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


The  foregoing  is  a  complete  business  statement  except 
the  opening  and  closing  inventory.  These  were  left  out  to 
simplify  the  account.  To  put  them  in,  one  would  simply 
put  in  the  debit  column  the  value  of  the  cow  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  year  and  in  the  credit  column  her  value  at  the 
close  of  the  year. 

Interest  on  Investment. — To  get  this  item  we  simply 
assumed  the  cow  to  be  worth  $40.00  and  figured  6%  on 
this  amount. 

Feed. — The  cow  was  fed  in  the  stall  for  seven  months, 
during  which  time  she  ate  301  lbs.  of  farm  grain  and  442 
lbs.  of  mill  feed,  worth  $10.46,  and  1,496  lbs.  of  hay  and 
3,330  lbs.  of  fodder,  worth  $12.29.  She  was  pastured  for 
five  months  and  was  charged  for  this  at  the  rate  of  $1.00 
per  month,  which  is  the  ordinary  charge  for  pasturing. 

Labor. — The  labor  includes  all 
time  spent  in  milking  and  caring 
for  the  cow  and  in  marketing  the 
product.  As  the  milk  was  shipped, 
it  had  to  be  delivered  to  the  sta- 
tion every  day,  which  work  re- 
quired considerable  time  for  both 
man  and  team,  all  of  which  must 
be  accounted  for. 

Miscellaneous  Expenses. — ^The 
item  for  miscellaneous  expense  is 
the  actual  wear  and  tear  on  dairy 
equipment,  cost  of  medicine,  etc. 
Profit. — The  net  profit  appears 
very  low;  but  in  reality  it  is  not 
bad  at  all,  since  every  bit  of  work 
done  and  feed  fed  was  paid  for  in 
full  and  a  fair  rate  of  interest  has 
been  paid  on  money  invested  in 
the  cow  and  in  the  buildings. 
There  is  an  additional  profit 
to  the  farm  by  keeping  live  stock,  as  most  of  the  fertilizing 
value  of  feeds  fed  is  retained  on  the  farm  in  the  form  of 
manure.  The  manure  produced  by  a  cow  in  one  year  is 
worth  several  dollars  to  the  farm. 


1.^ 

Figure  151. — Weighing  feed. 


FARM    MANAGEMENT  343 

The  COW  also  had  a  calf  which  is  worth  something;  and, 
had  the  butter-fat  been  sold  to  the  creamery  instead  of 
shipping  the  whole  milk,  about  5,000  lbs.  of  skimmed  milk 
would  have  been  available  for  feed;  which  is  worth,  at  15c. 
per  hundred  pounds,  $7.50. 

We  hope  some  of  our  readers  will  begin  at  once  to  weigh 
the  milk  produced  and  feed  consumed  by  some  or  all  of 
their  cows.  Also,  keep  a  record  of  the  amount  of  time 
spent  in  caring  for  them.  It  is  very  interesting  to  foot  up 
such  accounts  each  month  and  to  know  whether  one  is 
making  or  losing  by  keeping  stock. 
Questions: 

1.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  terms  Inventory,  Deprecia- 
tion, and  Profit? 

2.  How  can  you  determine  the  number  of  hours  of  labor  required 
to  care  for  a  cow  a  year? 

3.  What  advantages  are  there  in  keeping  cows  besides  the  profit 
shown  in  an  account  similar  to  the  one  given  above? 

Arithmetic: 

1.  If  a  cow  gives  18  lbs.  of  milk  per  day,  how  much  will  she  give 
in  300  days?  How  much  butter-fat  does  she  give  each  day,  if  her 
milk  tests  4%  fat?  How  much  butter-fat  will  she  give  in  300  days? 
How  much  is  the  butter-fat  worth  at  30c.  per  pound? 

2.  If  a  cow  is  fed  each  day  4  lbs.  of  corn  worth  56c.  per  bushel 
(56)  lbs.),  2  lbs.  of  bran  worth  $25  per  ton,  12  lbs.  clover  hay  worth 
$5  per  ton,  and  10  lbs.  of  fodder  corn  wort,h  $4  per  ton,  how  much  does 
it  cost  to  keep  her  one  day?     To  keep  her  200  days? 

3.  How  much  does  it  cost  to  pasture  a  cow  165  days  at  $1  per 
month? 

MARKETING  DAIRY  PRODUCTS 

Item  of  Expense. — Getting  dairy  products  to  market  is 
an  item  often  overlooked  in  considering  the  cost  of  produc- 
tion and  the  profits  in  dairying.  This  item  is  much  larger 
than  one  would  believe  at  first  thought.  It  is,  however, 
a  necessary  item  of  expense,  but  often  a  little  consideration 
and  planning  will  greatly  reduce  the  cost  and  add  a  corres- 
ponding amount  to  the  profits. 

Making  Butter  on  the  Farm. — A  few  cUng  to  the  old 
method  of  making  butter  on  the  farm,  and  there  are  prob- 
ably places  whereit  may  be  necessary  to  do  so;  but,  where  it  can 
be  avoided  and  the  cream  or  milk  sold  at  a  reasonable  price, 
it  is  preferable  to  sell  it.  In  churning  by  hand,  more  of 
the  butter-fat  is  lost  than  when  cream  is  churned  in  a  large 


344 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


chum  at  the  creamery.  Butter  makers  in  creameries  do 
nothing  but  make  butter.  They  make  a  study  of  it;  and, 
having  better  faciUties  than  are  usually  found  in  the  home, 
make  a  better  quality  of  butter. 

Overrun. — Milk  usually  contains  from  3%  to  5%  butter- 
fat,  and  cream  from  20%  to  40%  butter-fat.  A  pound  of 
butter-fat  will  make  more  than  a  pound  of  butter,  because 

butter  contains  from  12 
to  15%  water;  also  some 
salt  and  casein.  This 
increase  in  weight  is 
called .  by  butter  makers 
the  overrun.  A  good 
butter  maker  with  mod- 
ern creamery  equipment 
can  get  an  overrun  of 
from  18%  to  24%.  If 
he  buys  100  lbs.  of  but- 
ter-fat he  can  make  from 
118  to  124  lbs.  of  butter 
from  it.  It  is  very  sel- 
dom that  one  can  get  as  large  an  overrun,  when  churn- 
ing a  small  amount  of  butter  on  the  farm,  as  can  a  good 
butter  maker  in  a  modern  creamery.  While  a  farmer  can 
get  more  pounds  of  butter  by  churning  his  cream  himself 
than  he  had  pounds  of  butter-fat  in  the  cream,  yet  he  can- 
not as  a  rule  get  as  many  pounds  of  butter  as  could  a 
butter  maker  by  churning  the  same  cream  in  a  modern 
creamery.  This  fact,  together  with  the  fact  that  home 
dairy  butter  is  not  quite  so  marketable  as  creamery  butter, 
makes  it  the  part  of  wisdom,  on  most  farms,  to  sell  the 
cream  or  milk  at  the  local  creamery;  or,  if  no  creamery  is 
convenient,  to  ship  either  the  milk  or  the  cream,  rather 
than  to  make  butter  on  the  farm. 

Exceptions. — There  are  times  when  it  may  be  wise  to 
make  butter  on  the  farm,  but  at  present  such  conditions 
are  exceptional.  In  deciding  which  method  to  follow  one 
should  not  overlook  the  fact  that  butter  making  on  the 
farm  usually  falls  to  the  housekeeper,  who,  as  a  rule,  has 
too  much  to  do  without  this  unnecessary  work. 


Figure  152. — Home  manufacture  of  butter. 


FARM    MANAGEMENT  34 K 

Selling  Whole  Milk  or  Cream. — The  majority  of  farmers 
now  separate  their  milk,  keep  the  skimmed  milk  at  home 
for  their  calves  and  pigs,  and  sell  their  cream.  A  few, 
however,  who  live  within  reasonable  shipping  distances 
from  large  cities,  ship  the  whole  milk  to  retail  dealers  who 
retail  to  the  consumers.  When  milk  is  shipped  in  this  way 
it  is  usually  sold  by  the  hundred  pounds,  and  it  is  often  a 
problem  to  determine  which  is  more  profitable — to  ship 
whole  milk  or  to  sell  the  cream.  A  specific  problem  will 
illustrate  how  any  one  must  decide  which  is  the  better 
method.  A  farmer  living  three  miles  from  town,  and  the 
same  distance  from  a  creamery,  has  ten  cows,  each  giving 
daily  20  pounds  of  milk  testing  4  per  cent  butter-fat. 

Whole  Milk. — If  this  farmer  ships  whole  milk  to  the 
city,  he  must  deliver  it  every  day,  seven  days  each  week. 
It  will  take  a  man  and  team  two  hours  each  day  to  take 
the  milk  to  the  statior.  This,  time  is  worth  about  30c. 
per  hours.  Thus  the  cost  of  marketing  will  be  60c.  per  day 
or  $4.20  per  week. 

Cream. — If  he  separates  his  milk  and  sells  the  cream, 
he  will  need  to  deliver  it  but  three  times  a  week,  which 
labor  at  60c.  a  trip  will  cost  51>1.80.  He  will  have  to  separate 
100  lbs.  of  milk  and  wash  the  separator  fourteen  times  dur- 
ing the  week.  Allowing  half  an  hour  for  this,  it  amounts, 
in  a  week,  to  seven  hours.  Man  labor  is  worth  about  15c. 
per  hour,  which  will  make  the  separating  cost  $1.05.  The 
cost  for  interest,  depreciation  and  repair  on  the  separator 
will  be  about  25c.  per  week.  Thus  the  separating  and 
delivering  will  cost  $3.10  per  week. 

In  addition  to  a  saving  in  the  cost  of  marketing,  if  the 
cream  is  sold  in  place  of  the  whole  milk,  this  farmer  will 
have  about  1,175  pounds  of  skimmed  milk,  which  at  15 
cents  per  hundred  is  worth  $1.76. 
Questions: 

1.  What  item  of  expense  is  often  overlooked  in  the  cost  of  dairy 
products? 

2.  Give  at  least  three  reasons  why  it  is  usually  not  wise  to  make 
butter  at  home. 

3.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  creamery  man's  term  "the 
overrun"? 

4.  Compare  the  items  of  expense  in  selling  whole  milk  with  selling 
cream. 


34  J  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Arithmetic: 

1.  If  a  butter  maker  gets  an  overrun  of  20%,  how  much  butter 
will  he  make  from  986  lbs.  of  cream? 

2.  If  a  man  has  10  cows,  each  giving  20  lbs.  of  milk  per  day, 
how  many  pounds  of  milk  will  he  get  per  day?  How  many  pounds 
of  butter-fat  will  he  get,  if  there  are  4  lbs.  of  fat  in  each  100  lbs.  of  milk? 

3.  What  is  the  value  of  1,175  lbs.  of  skim  milk  at  15c.  per  hun- 
dred pounds? 

CO-OPERATION  IN  DELIVERING  MILK  OR  CREAM 

Co-operation  Reduces  Cost. — We  have  found  that  the 
farmer  who  hauled  his  cream  to  the  creamery  three  times 
each  week  spent  6  hours  of  time  for  himself  and  team; 
which,  at  30c.  per  hour,  costs  him  $1.80  per  week  or  $93.60 
per  year,  simply  for  marketing  the  cream  from  ten  cows, 
each  giving  daily  20  lbs.  of  milk  testing  4%  fat.  This  is 
certainly  quite  an  item,  especially  at  a  time  when  farm  help 
is  as  scarce  as  it  is  at  present. 

If  three  such  farmers  would  co-operate  in  hauling  cream, 
so  that  each  would  haul  but  one  day  each  week,  the  cost 
would  be  very  little  more  than  one  third  as  much  as  when 
each  markets  his  own  cream.  There  would  be  a  saving 
each  year  of  about  $60  per  farm  or  $6  per  cow. 

We  have  found  (page  333)  that  it  cost  a  farmer,  with 
ten  cows,  $4.20  per  week  or  $218.40  per  year  to  market 
whole  milk,  because  he  was  obliged  to  go  to  market  every 
day.  If  three  such  farmers,  living  near  each  other,  were 
to  co-operate  in  marketing  their  milk,  about  %  of  this  cost, 
or  $155,  would  be  saved  to  each  farm;  which  is  over  $15 
per  cow  per  year.  An  increased  profit  of  $15  per  cow  is 
worth  consideration. 

Creamery  Company  Hauls  Cream. — It  has  been  sug- 
gested that  instead  of  each  farmer's  hauling  milk  or  cream 
to  a  creamery,  the  creamery  company  employ  teams  to 
haul  the  cream  or  milk  from  all  the  farms.  It  would  cer- 
tainly seem  that  there  might  be  a  very  great  saving  realized, 
if  this  suggestion  were  followed.  One  man  and  team  thus 
employed  could  haul  all  the  cream  from  twenty  to  sixty 
farms,  depending  on  the  condition  of  roads,  distance  to 
haul  and  size  of  herds. 

Consider. — Spend  a  few  moments  figuring  on  these  prob- 
lems as  they  may  apply  in  your  particular  locality.     If 


FARM    MANAGEMENT  347 

you  can  answer  the  following  questions,  you  can  figure  the 
problems  easily: 

How  often  per  week  do  you  deliver  milk  or  cream? 

How  much  time,  on  the  average,  is  required? 

How  many  hours  will  a  man  spend  in  a  year  to  deliver 
your  milk  or  cream?  What  is  the  total  cost  of  this  labor 
at  15c.  per  hour? 

How  many  hours  of  horse  labor  will  be  required  in  a 
year  to  deliver  your  milk  or  cream?  What  is  the  total  cost 
of  this  labor  at  8c.  per  hour  per  horse? 

These  figures  will  enable  you  to  find  the  total  cost  of 
marketing  the  product  of  your  dairy  when  you  do  it 
yourself.  Figure,  also,  what  it  would  cost  you,  if  you  were 
to  exchange  with  two  or  three  of  your  neighbors,  so  that 
you  will  have  to  go  but  every  third  or  fourth  time. 

Still  another  valuable  problem  will  be  to  find  out  how 
many  farms  could  be  reached  by  one  team  circling  around 
so  as  to  reach  the  greatest  possible  number  of  farms  and  get 
back  to  the  creamery  by  traveling  from  10  to  14  miles. 

To  make  such  a  trip  one  half  day's  time  for  man  and 
teani  would  be  required,  at  a  cost  of  $1.50  to  $2.00.     Figure 
whetlier  or  not  this  would  be  a  saving  over  the  common 
practice  of  each  farmer's  delivering  his  own  cream. 
Questions: 

1 .  In  what  manner  are  the  dairy  products  of  your  farm  marketed? 

2.  Are  there  two  or  more  of  your  neighbors  living  near  your 
place,  so  that  you  might  co-operate  with  them  in  hauling  your  milk 
or  cream  to  the  creamery  or  to  the  station? 

3.  Would  it  not  be  practical  for  the  creamery  company  to  em- 
ploy one  or  more  teams  to  collect  milk  or  cream,  instead  of  having 
each  farmer  deliver  it? 

Arithmetic: 

1.  If  100  lbs.  of  milk  were  run  through  a  separator  and  4  lbs. 
of  butter-fat  taken  out,  and  with  the  butter-fat  12  lbs.  of  milk,  how 
many  pounds  of  skimmed  milk  would  be  left?  (Note.  4  lbs.  of 
butter-fat  in  12  lbs.  of  milk  would  make  16  lbs.  of  cream  testing  25% 
fat,  which  is  about  the  average  for  cream.) 

2.  If  the  4  lbs.  of  butter-fat  taken  from  the  100  lbs.  of  milk 
were  sold  for  33c.  per  pound,  and  the  skimmed  milk  were  worth  15c. 
per  hundred,  what  would  be  the  income  from  the  100  lbs.  of  milk? 

3.  If  it  costs  10c.  per  100  lbs.  more  to  market  whole  milk  than 
to  separate  and  market  cream,  at  what  price  per  100  lbs.  must  4%  milk 
be  sold  to  be  as  profitable  as  cream  at  33c.  per  pound  for  butter-fat? 


348  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Exercises: 

1.  Write  out  the  rotations  i)racticed  on  your  farm  or  on  some 
other  farm  close  by. 

2.  Of  the  three  classe,s  of  crops  which  one  occupies  the  greater 
acreage  in  your  community  this  year? 

3.  Plan  an  ideal  farmstead  with  complete  arrangements. 

4.  Pupils  should  select  one  branch  of  the  farm  business  and  be 
allowed  to  keep  an  accurate  account  of  all  moneys  expended  and  re- 
ceived. 

5.  How  are  the  farmers  of  the  vicinity  marketing  their  milk? 
What  is  done  with  the  by-products? 


CHAPTER  XXIV 
POWER  MACfflNERY  ON  THE  FARM 

THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  FABM  MACHINERY 

A  history  of  the  development  and  use  of  farm  machinery 
is  most  fascinating.  Years  ago,  before  many  of  our  com- 
mon machines  had  been  invented,  almost  all  farm  work  was 
done  by  hand.  Gradually  much  of  this  hand  labor,  such  as 
cutting  grain  with  sickle  or  cradle,  cutting  hay  with  a  scythe, 
hoeing  corn,  cutting  corn  with  a  knife,  and  threshing  grain 
with  a  flail,  has  been  made  unnecessary  and  decidedly  im- 
practical by  the  development  of  machinery  that  will  do  the 
work  better  and  faster.  In  1855  it  took  4  hours  and  34 
minutes  of  human  labor  to  produce  one  bushel  of  corn,  and 
in  1894  only  41  minutes  were  required. 

Power  machinery  is  the  latest  development.  Now  every 
known  kind  of  power  is  being  applied  to  farm  work  and  is 
taking  the  place  of  both  human  and  animal  labor.  Nearly 
every  farm  has  one  or  more  gas  engines.  Many  farms  now 
use  electricity  for  running  some  of  the  machinery  as  well 
as  for  lighting.  Horse  power,  hand  power  and  wind  power 
have  to  a  considerable  extent  been  replaced  by  gas  engines 
and  electric  motors. 

Knowledge  is  Power. — Every  farm  operator  to-day  must 
know  a  great  deal  about  machinery;  the  cost,  the  cost  of 
operation  and  ilpkeep,  and  how  to  operate  it  efficiently. 
Much  money  and  effort  are  wasted  by  farmers  in  buying 
machinpes  not  suited  to  their  needs  and  by  not  operating 
them  successfully  when  used.  On  the  other  hand,  farm 
machinery  is  highly  desirable  and  has  contributed  more  to 
the  splendid  development  of  agriculture  during  the  past 
fifty  years  than  any  other  agency. 

Some  Points  to  Consider. — It  is  deplorable  that  many 
farmers  have  lost  their  farms  on  account  of  having  pur- 
chased too  much  machinery,  but  we  can  not  condemn  ma- 
chinery for  that  reason.  Some  persons  eat  too  much,  but 
we  can  not  condemn  eating  on  that  account.   Some  one  has 


350  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

said  that  too  many  farmers  do  not  buy  things,  but  things 
are  sold  to  them.  This  is  too  true.  Some  clever  salesmen 
talk  farmers  into  buying  machines  that  they  do  not  need. 
The  remedy  is  to  realize  that  farming  is  a  real  business  and 
that  as  much  business  abiUty  is  required  to  operate  a  farm 
as  to  operate  a  bank. 

The  amount  of  machinery  we  have  is  a  fair  measure  of 
our  civilization.  The  savage  had  only  his  two  hands  or 
very  crude  tools  with  which  to  work,  but  now  we  not  only 
have  learned  to  make  and  use  tools,  but  to  accumulate  their 
products. 

Questions: 

1.  Give  some  of  the  reasons  why-  boys  are  interested  in  farm 
machinery. 

2.  Have  the  inventors  and  manufacturers  of  farm  machinery 
r^ndered  a  real  service?     If  so,  in  what  way? 

3.  What  can  you  say  of  the  danger  of  buying  too  much  machin- 
ery? 

Arithmetic: 

1.  If  26  hours  of  man  labor  are  required  to  produce  an  acre  of 
corn  yielding  40  bushels,  how  much  man  labor  is  required  to  produce 
1  bushel  of  corn?  How  much  is  the  labor  cost  of  producing  1  bushel 
of  corn  if  man's  labor  is  worth  25c  per  hour? 

2.  If  a  boy  turns  a  grindstone  twice  each  week  for  20  minutes 
each  time,  how  many  hours  would  be  spend  per  year  turning  a  grind- 
stone?    How  much  would  that  time  be  worth  at  15c  per  houi'? 

KINDS  OP  POWER  MACHINERY 

Horse  power  or  other  animal  power  was  the  first  and  is 
the  most  general  power  used  to  lighten  and  make  more 
efficient  the  work  of  the  farm.  Horses  have  been  used  to 
haul  machines,  as  plows,  harrows,  mowers,  etc.,  to  trans- 
port crops  and  other  products  to  market,  and  to  furnish 
belt  power  for  threshing  grain,  grinding  feed  and  sawing 
wood.  Horses  furnish  power  for  running  machines,  by 
working  in  tread-power  machines  or  on  sweep  (horse  power) 
machines.  Horses  for  furnishing  belt  power  are  now  quite 
generally  displaced  in  favor  of  gas  or  steam  engines  or 
electric  motors. 

Wind  mills  have  long  been  a  source  of  farm  power,  par- 
ticularly for  pumping  water  and  to  some  extent  for  grind- 
ing feed.  The  fact  that  the  wind  may  not  blow  just  when 
power  is  wanted  has  led  many  to  prefer,  at  least  temporarily, 


POWER  MACHINERY  ON  THE  FARM  351 

gas  engines.  There  is,  however,  quite  a  general  drift  back 
to  the  wind  mill  for  pumping  water.  Wind  furnishes  by- 
far  the  cheapest  power  available  to  most  farms,  and  if  stor- 
age tanks  of  sufficient  size  are  provided,  so  that  enough 
water  may  be  stored  to  last  for  several  days  when  there  is 
no  wind,  a  wind  mill  is  quite  reliable. 

Water  power  is  likewise  a  cheap  form  of  power  when 
available.  It  furnishes  splendid  power  for  all  belt  work 
that  can  be  brought  to  it.  Whenever  it  is  possible  to  con- 
nect up  an  electric  generating  plant  with  water  power  an 
electric  current  becomes  available  very  cheaply,  and  can 
be  carried  by  means  of  wires  to  any  part  of  the  farm. 

Gas  engines  are  by  far  the  most  common  source  of 
mechanical  power  on  the  farm,  both  for  tractor  and  belt 
work.  Gas  engines  are  now  very  generally  used  for  pump- 
ing water,  grinding  feed,  running  washing  machines,  milk 
separators,  electric  light  plants,  threshing  machines,  and  al- 
so for  plowing,  disking,  ditching,  road-making,  etc.  The 
invention  and  development  of  gas  engines  has  done  much 
more  for  farming  than  for  any  other  industry.  Gas  engines 
are  generally  used  also  for  trucks  and  automobiles.  It  is 
only  a  short  time  since  the  automobile  became  practical. 
Now  nearly  every  farm  has  one  for  general  use,  and  many 
are  beginning  to  use  auto  trucks  for  marketing  products 
and  hauling  supplies. 

Electricity  is  gradually  coming  into  use  on  farms.  It  is 
by  no  means  general  as  yet,  but  has  been  proven  entirely 
satisfactory  and  dependable.  For  lights  there  is  nothing 
equal  to  electricity.  It  is  also  the  cleanest,  quietest  and 
most  convenient  power  for  such  light  work  about  the  farm 
and  home,  as  turning  the  separator,  running  the  washing 
machine  and  wringer,  and  running  the  sewing  machine, 
heating  the  flatiron,  etc.  Until  recently  farmers  could  not 
have  electricity  unless  they  lived  near  a  power  line  or  could 
get  the  current  from  a  near-by  town.  Now,  however,  small 
electric  generating  plants  are  made  that  are  practical  for 
an  individual  farm  plant.  These  plants  consist  of  a  small 
gas  engine  which  runs  a  dynamo  and  generates  an  electric 
current.  This  current  may  be  used  as  it  is  generated  or 
stored  in  batteries  for  light  or  power  as  needed. 


352  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Power  in  the  Home. — Much  of  the  work  of  the  home, 
too,  may  be  done  by  machinery.  Too  many  farms  are  well 
equipped  with  machinery  for  outside  work  before  much 
thought  is  given  to  the  work  in  the  home.  Home  work  on 
the  farm  is  quite  as  heavy  and  confining  and  important  as 
the  work  out-of-doors.  Farm  boys  and  girls  should  know 
this  and  give  as  much  thought  to  the  use  of  power  machin- 
ery to  lighten  the  work  of  the  home  as  to  the  application  of 
power  to  the  work  of  the  farm. 
Questions: 

1.  Name  all  the  different  kinds  of  farm  power  you  can  think  of. 

2.  Which  is  {he  most  common  kind  of  farm  power  in  your  com- 
munity? For  plowing?  For  pumping  water?  For  grinding  feed? 
For  hauHng  farm  products  to  market? 

3.  Tell  all  you  can  about  the  use  of  power  machinery  to  lighten 
the  work  of  the  home. 

Arithmetic: 

1.  If  a  farmer  keeps  50  head  of  live  stock  and  each  requires  8 
gallons  of  water  per  day,  how  many  gallons  of  water  are  needed  to 
supply  these  animals? 

2.  If  a  boy  can  pump  a  gallon  of  water  in  15  seconds,  how  long 
will  it  take  him  to  pump  400  gallons?  If  his  time  is  worth  15c  per 
hour,  what  will  be  the  value  of  the  time  spent  in  one  year,  if  his  time 
is  worth  25c  per  hour? 

THE  USE  OF  POWER  MACHINERY 

Know  the  Machine. — Most  standard-make  farm  machin- 
ery is  reasonably  well  made  and  will  give  good  service,  if 
well  handled.  Now  that  there  is  so  much  machinery  used 
in  farming,  a  farmer  needs  to  be  a  pretty  good  mechanic. 
Young  men  seem  to  learn  to  handle  machinery  more  easily 
than  older  men.  It  is  worth  while  for  every  farm  boy  to 
learn  the  principles  of  operation  of  the  more  commonly  used 
machines. ' 

Care  of  the  Machinery. — Some  men  use  a  tractor  for 
years  and  still  always  have  it  in  working  order.  Some  run 
an  automobile  fifty  thousand  or  a  hundred  thousand  miles 
and  still  get  good  service,  while  others  have  a  very  unsatis- 
factory machine  after  using  it  a  short  time.  The  difference 
is  very  largely  in  the  care  given  the  machine.  A  very  im- 
portant point  in  the  care  of  a  machine  is  to  see  that  it  is 
oiled  properly  and  kept  oiled.  A  bearing  may  run  for 
months  without  any  appreciable  wear  if  kept  properly  oiled, 
while  an  hour  or  so  of  running  when  dry  will  entirely  ruin  it. 


POWER  MACHINERY  ON  THE  FARM  353 

Another  important  point  is  to  keep  all  bearings  and  bolts 
just  tight  enough.  Any  looseness  in  the  joints  of  a  machine 
greatly  increases  the  strain  and  wear  on  it.  And  a  machine 
should  be  used  reasonably  and  sensibly,  that  is,  do  not 
unduly  strain  it,  unless  absolutely  necessary,  either  by  run- 
ning it  too  fast  or  by  overloading  it. 

Cost. — The  use  of  most  machines  must  be  justified  on 
the  basis  of  cost.  That  is,  can  the  work  be  done  as  cheaply 
or  more  cheaply  with  the  machine  than  without  it?  There 
are  several  different  items  to  consider  in  determining  the 
cost  of  a  machine  for  doing  work.  Some  of  the  more  im- 
portant items  are  depreciation,  interest  on  investment, 
shelter,  repairs,  insurance,  oil  and  fuel.  Depreciation  means 
the  wear  or  lowering  in  value.  If  a  machine  is  worth  $100 
at  the  beginning  of  the  year  and  only  $80  at  the  close  of  the 
year,  we  say  that  it  has  depreciated  $20.  Cost  is  a  pretty 
reasonable  basis  for  determining  the  practicabiUty  of  a 
machine  and  should  always  be  considered.  Sometimes, 
however,  in  fact,  quite  often,  cost  alone  is  not  a  sufficient 
argument  for  not  using  a  machine.  A  home  may  be  lighted 
with  kerosene  lamps,  more  cheaply  than  by  electricity, 
nevertheless  electricity  in  the  home  is  a  good  investment, 
if  it  can  be  afforded. 

A  man  may  be  able  to  plow  more  cheaply  with  horses 
than  with  a  tractor,  but  the  tractor  may  enable  him  to  do 
his  work  more  quickly  and  just  at  the  right  time,  so  that 
it  might  pay  him  to  use  a  tractor  even  at  a  higher  cost. 

Again,  machines  may  interest  boys  and  girls  and  keep 
them  at  home  satisfied  when  they  would  otherwise  leave. 

Suggestions. — Such  a  general  and  elementary  text  as 
this  can  not  give  detailed  information  concerning  the  opera- 
tion of  farm  machinery.  The  best  we  can  do  is  to  advise 
our  readers  to  study  carefully  the  directions  sent  out  with 
each  machine.  Occasionally  some  operator  can  improve 
upon  these  directions,  but  generally  many  costly  mistakes 
are  made  by  not  following  them.  The  manufacturer  of 
farm  machinery  is  very  anxious  that  the  users  of  his  machine 
shall  get  good  service  and  be  satisfied.  He  has  generally 
tried  his  machine  under  a  great  many  different  conditions 
and  knows  how  it  will  do  the  best  work.     Hence,  the  wise 


354  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

puchaser  will  preserve  these  directions  sent  with  the  ma- 
chine, study  them  carefully  and  follow  them  very  closely. 
It  will  also  pay  to  get  one  or  two  good  books  on  automobiles, 
tractors,  etc.,  so  that  details  of  operation  and  care  may  be 
learned. 

Questions: 

1.  Tell  all  you  can  about  the  care  of  farm  machinery. 

2.  What  are  some  of  the  points  to  consider  in  the  purchase  of 
a  machine? 

3.  Name  some  of  the  sources  of  information  for  knowing  how 
to  properly  operate  machinery. 

Arithmetic: 

1.  If  a  gas  tractor  worth  $1,400  depreciates  at  the  rate  of  15% 
per  year  and  a  fair  interest  rate  is  6%,  what  will  be  the  amount  of 
these  two  items  for  one  year? 

2.  If  the  total  cost  of  owning  and  operating  a  gas  tractor  for 
one  year  is  $600,  what  will  be  the  cost  per  day,  if  it  is  operated  45 
days  during  the  year? 

3.  If  it  costs  10c  per  mile  to  run  an  automobile,  what  will  be 
the  cost  per  year  if  it  is  run  3,700  miles? 

Exercises: 

1.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  different  kinds  of  farm  machinery  on 
your  father's  farm. 

2.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  different  kinds  of  farm  machinery  that 
you  know  about  in  your  neighborhood. 

3.  If  there  is  a  new  kind  of  machine  in  the  neighborhood  be 
sure  to  see  it  in  operation.  Ask  the  owner  what  the  good  and  bad 
points  of  his  machine  are. 

4.  Find  out  how  many  wind  mills  there  are  in  your  school  dis- 
trict and  ask  whether  or  not  they  are  satisfactory. 

5.  Find  out  how  many  tractors  and  auto  trucks  are  in  use  in 
your  neighborhood,  ask  about  them  and  report  to  your  teacher  or 
your  father. 

6.  If  there  is  an  individual  farm  electric  lighting  plant  in  your 
neighborhood,  visit  the  plant  and  find  out  all  you  can  about  it. 

7.  Examine  carefully  the  most  important  pice  of  machinery 
and  learn  the  name  of  all  the  different  partS: 


APPENDIX 


356  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 
Soil 
Soils  and  Soil  Fertility,  Whitson  and  Walster. 
First  Principles  of  Soil  Fertility,  A.  Vivian. 
Physics  of  Agriculture,  F.  H.  King. 

Soil  Fertility  and  Permanent  Agriculture,  C.  G.  Hopkins. 
Soil  Management,  F.  H.  King. 
The  Soil,  A.  D.  Hall. 
The  Soil,  F.  H.  King. 

Soils:  Their  Preparation  and  Management,  Lyon,  Fippen  and  Buckman. 
Soils  and  Plant  Life,  Cunningham  and  Lancelot. 

Fertilizers 
Fertilizers  and  Crops,  Van  Slyke. 
Manures  and  Manuring,  C.  W.  Aikman. 
Fertilizers,  E.  B.  Voorhees. 
Manures  and  Fertilizers,  H.  J.  Wheeler. 

Grains 
Field  Crops,  Wilson  and  Warburton. 
Small  Grains,  M.  A.  Carleton. 
The  Book  of  Wheat,  P.  T.  Dondlinger. 
Productive  Farm  Crops,  E.  G.  Montgomery. 
Field  Crop  Production,  G.  Livingston. 
Cereals  in  America,  T.  F.  Hunt. 
Corn  Crops,  E.  G.  Montgomery. 
Corn,  Bowman  and  Crossley. 
Farm  Crops,  C.  W.  Burkett. 

Grasses  and  Clovers 
Alfalfa,  Wing. 

Grasses  and  How  to  Grow  Them,  Thomas  Shaw. 
Clovers  and  How  to  Grow  Them,  Thomas  Shaw. 
The  Book  of  Alfalfa,  F.  D.  Colburn. 
Meadows  and  Pastures,  J.  E.  Wing. 
Text  Book  of  Grasses,  A.  S.  Hitchcock. 
Farm  Grasses -of  United  States,  W.  J.  Spillman. 

Forage  Crops 
Forage  Crops,  E.  B.  Voorhees. 
Forage  and  Fiber  Crops  in  America,  T.  F.  Hunt. 
Forage  Plants,  C.  W.  Piper. 
Forage  Crops,  Thomas  Shaw. 
Grasses  and  Forage  Crops,  C.  R.  Flint. 
Fruit  Growing 
Popular  Fruit  Growing,  S.  B.  Green. 
Productive  Orcharding,  F.  C.  Sears. 
Principles  of  Fruit  Growing,  L.  H.  Bailey. 
Bush  Fruits,  F.  W.  Card. 
American  Apple  Orchard,  F.  A.  Waugh. 
Principles  and  Practice  of  Pruning,  M.  J.  Kains. 
The  Nursery  Book,  L.  H.  Bailey. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  357 

Vegetable  Growing 
Vegetable  Gardening,  S.  B.  Green. 
Garden  Farming,  L.  C.  Corbett. 
Garden  Making,  L.  H.  Bailey. 
Principles  of  Vegetable  Gardening,  L.  H.  Bailey. 
Productive  Vegetable  Gardening,  J.  W.  Lloyd. 
Vegetable  Gardening,  R.  L.  Watts. 
The  Potato,  A.  W.  Gilbert. 
The  Potato,  Grubb  and  Guilford. 
The  A  B  C  of  Potato  Culture,  T.  B.  Terry. 
Scientific  Potato  Culture,  A.  J.  Young. 
Vegetable  Forcing,  R.  L.  Watts. 

Insects  and  Plant  Diseases 
Insects  Injurious  to  Vegetables,  F.  H.  Chittenden. 
Manual  of  Vegetable  Gardening  Insects,  Crosby  and  Leonard. 
Manual  of  Fruit  Diseases,  Hester  and  Wetzel. 
Manual  of  Fruit  Insects,  Slingerland  and  Crosby. 
Insect  Pests  of  Farm,  Garden  and  Orchard,  Sanderson. 
Insects  Injurious  to  Fruits,  W.  Saunders. 
Fungous  Diseases  of  Plants,  B.  M.  Duggar. 
Injurious  Insects  and  Useful  Birds,  F.  L.  Washburn. 

Farm  Animals 
Beginnings  in  Animal  Husbandry,  C.  S.  Plumb. 
Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals,  C.  S.  Plumb. 
Judging  Farm  Animals,  C.  S.  Plumb. 
Judging  Live  Stock,  C.  R.  Craig. 
Judging  Live  Stock,  C.  W.  Gay. 
Manual  of  Farm  Animals,  M.  W.  Harper. 
Management  and  Breeding  of  Horses,  M.  W.  Harper. 
Productive  Horse  Husbandry,  C.  W.  Gray. 
Productive  Sheep  Husbandry,  W.  C.  Coffey. 
Productive  Swine  Husbandry,  George  E.  Day 
The  Hog  B9ok,  H.  C.  Dawson. 
Swine,  William  Dietrich. 
Swine  in  America,  F.  D.  Cobum. 
Sheep  Farming  in  America,  Joseph  E.  Wing. 
Sheep  Management,  Frank  Kleinheinz. 
Common  Diseases  of  Farm  Animals,  R.  A.  Craig. 

Feeds  and  Feeding 
Feeds  and  Feeding,  Henry  and  Morrison. 
Profitable  Stock  Feeding,  H.  R.  Smith. 
Feeding  of  Animals,  W.  H.  Jordan. 

Dairying 
Dairy  Cattle  and  Milk  Production,  C.  H.  Eckles. 
Dairy  Farming,  John  Michels. 
Dairy  Farming,  Eckles  and  Warren. 
Farm  Dairy,  H.  B.  Gurler. 

Market  Dairying  and  Milk  Products,  John  Michels 
Milk  and  Its  Products,  H.  H.  Wing. 


358  ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Productive  Dairying,  R.  M.  Washburn. 
Dairy  Laboratory  Guide,  G.  L.  Martin. 

Poultry 
Principles  and  Practice  of  Poultry  Culture,  J.  H.  Robinson. 
Productive  Poultry  Culture,  H.  R.  Lewis. 
Poultry  Production,  W.  A.  Lippincott. 

Miscellaneous 
Farm  Boys  and  Girls,  W.  A.  McKeever. 
How  to  Live  in  the  Country,  E.  P.  Powell. 
Rural  Improvement,  F.  A.  Waugh. 
Work  of  the  Rural  School,  Eggleston  and  Briere. 
Rural  Hygiene,  H.  W.  Ogden. 
School  Hygiene,  F.  B.  Dressier. 
Farmer's  Law,  L.  V.  Koos. 
Home  and  Community  Hygiene,  J.  Broadhurst. 
How  to  Co-operate,  Herbert  Myrick. 
Poems  of  Country  Life,  Collection  by  G.  S.  Bryan. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  BABCOCK  TEST. 
Milk-Testing  Outfit. 

2  pipettes  with  capacity  of  17.6  c.c.      1  tin  cup  with  spout 

12  Babcock  milk  test  bottles  1  twelve-bottle  tester 

2  skimmed  milk  test  bottles  1  gallon  sulphuric  acid 

2  acid  measures  with  capacity  of  17.5  c.c. 

Where  the  milk  of  only  one  or  two  cows  is  to  be  tested,  the  four- 
bottle  tester  is  sufficient,  but  the  covered  twelve-bottle  tester  is  safer 
and  its  temperature  is  more  easily  maintained. 

Mix  the  milk  thoroughly  by  pouring  and  fill  pipette  to  the  grad- 
uation, holding  the  finger  over  the  upper  opening. 

With  the  vessels  at  a  slant,  and  releasing  the  finger,  allow  all  the 
milk  to  flow  into  the  bottle.  It  should  not  be  warmer  than  60-70  degrees 
Fahrenheit. 

Fill  the  measuring  cylinder  to  the  graduation  with  sulphuric  acid 
testing  1.82  (special  for  this  test)  and  pour  into  the  bottle. 

Shake  the  mixture  vigorously  about  one  minute  after  all  the  curd 
has  disappeared.  The  bottle  will  get  hot.  Use  caution,  as  the  acid 
is  corrosive  and  dangerous.    And  do  not  use  pipette  for  acid. 

Place  the  bottles  in  the  centrifuge,  or  tester,  cover  and,  after  heating 
it  on  the  stove  or  by  adding  a  few  quarts  of  boiling  water,  whirl  for  five 
minutes  at  the  rate  of  eighty  revolutions  a  minute.  If  the  tester  is 
not  full,  the  bottles  should  be  balanced  in  opposite  positions. 

With  the  tin  cup  fill  the  bottles  nearly  to  the  base  of  the  neck  with 
water  that  is  nearly  boiling  hot  and  whirl  again  for  one  minute. 
Fill  with  hot  water  to  7  or  8  on  the  neck  and  whirl  one  minute. 

Take  the  readings  at  once.  Subtract  the  reading  on  the  scale 
at  the  bottom  of  the  fat  column  from  the  reading  at  the  top  of  it. 
The  difference  is  the  percentage  of  fat  in  the  milk. 


APPENDIX 


359 


Planting  Information  for  Vegetables 

PLANT 

Soil 

Depth 

Plants 
Apart 

Rows 
Apart 

Days  to 
Germi- 
nate 

Days  to 
Mature 

Cabbage . . 
Cauliflower 
Celery 

Rich  loam 

Rich  loam 

Light  rich 

Rich 

Rich  sandy 

loam 

3' 
3' 
3" 
3- 

6" 

2' 
2' 
8' 
3' 

3' 

3' 

15' 

3' 

100-110 
105-115 

84 

Onion  sets. 
Tomatoes . 

90-100 

SEEDS 

Seeds  to 
Foot 

Beans ...    . 

Loamy 

Sandy  loam. 

Light 

Light  rich 

Rich  loam 

Rich 

Rich  loam 

Good 

Rich  loam 

Light 

Light 

Fertile  san- 
dy clay 

Light 

Rich  sandy 
loam 

Open  soil 

2" 
1' 

M' 
M' 
'A' 

1- 

1' 

H' 

4  to  hill 

10 

6-12 

12 

5  to  hill 
4  to  hill 

15 
15 

6 
15 

8 
20 

8 

12 
15 

24-30' 

18" 

15' 

15' 
3' 
6' 

15' 

15' 

18' 

15' 
3' 

15' 

18' 

15' 
15' 

5-10 

7-10 

12-18 

10-20 

5-  8 
6-10 

6-  8 
7-10 

20-30 

10-20 

6-10 

3-  6 

7-12 

6-10 

4-  8 

43-  60 

Beets 

60-  70 

Carrots 

Celery 

95-100 
160-175 

Com 

55-75 

Cucumbers. . 

Lettuce 

Onion  seeds.. 

Parsley . 

Parsnips 

Peas 

50-75 

60-  65 

100-110 

98 

125-140 

60-  80 

Radishes 

Salsify  .   . 

21-  35 
130-140 

Spinach.  .  .  . 
Turnips  .... 

21-  30 
60 

Distances  Apart  for  Planting  Fruits 


Trees 


Distance 


Bush  or  Vine 


Distance 


Apples 30-40  ft. 

Apricots 15-20  ft. 

Cherries 15-25  ft. 

Oranges 25-30  ft. 

Peaches 15-20  ft. 

Pears 20-30  ft. 

Plums 1.5-20  ft. 

Quinces 10-12  ft. 


Blackberries 43^-7  ft 

Cranberries 1-2  f  c 

Currants 4-4  J^^  ft. 

Gooseberries 4-4^  ft- 

Grapes 6-12  ft. 

Raspberries,  black 3^4-5  ft. 

Raspberries,  red 3J^-4  ft 

Strawberries 1 H-3  ft. 


360 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


Haecker's  Feeding  Standard  for  the  Dairy  Cow 

Daily  allowance  of  digestible 

nutrients 

Crude 

Carbohy- 

Fat 

Protein 

drates 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

For  support  of  the  1,000-lb.  cow 

0.7 

7.0 

0.1 

To  the  allowance  for  support  add: 

For  each  lb.  of  3.0  per  cent  milk 

0.040 

0.19 

0.015 

For  each  lb.  of  3.5  per  cent  milk 

0.042 

0.21 

0.016 

For  each  lb.  of  4.0  per  cent  milk 

0.047 

0.23 

0.018 

For  each  lb.  of  4.5  per  cent  milk 

0.049 

0.26 

0.020 

For  each  lb.  of  5.0  per  cent  milk 

0.051 

0.27 

0.021 

For  each  lb.  of  5.5  per  cent  milk 

0.054 

0.29 

0.022 

For  each  lb.  of  6.0  per  cent  milk 

0.057 

0.31 

0.024 

Quantities  of  Seed  Required  to  the  Acre 


Name  Quantity  of  Seed 


Name 


Quantity  of  Seed 


Alfalfa 6-12  lbs. 

Alsike 8-20  lbs. 

Barley 1^-2^  bu. 

Beans 1-2  bu. 

Blue  grass 10-15  lbs. 

Broom  corn 1-1 3^  bu. 

Buckwheat %-l  }i  bu. 

Carrots 4-5  lbs. 

Com ^-1  bu. 

Flax 3^-2  bu. 

Hemp 1-lH  bu. 

Millet 1-1 3^  bu. 


Orchard  grass : 20-30  lbs. 

Oats.. 2-4  bu. 

Parsnips 6-8  lbs. 

Peas 23^-3 3^  bu. 

Potatoes 5-10  bu. 

Rice 2-2>^lbs. 

Red  Clover 10-16  lbs. 

Rye 1-2  bu. 

Timothy 12-24  qts. 

Turnips 2-3  lbs. 

Wheat lM-2bu. 

White  Clover 3-4  Iba. 


NUTRIENTS  AND  FERTILIZERS 


361 


Average  Nutrient  and  Fertilizer  Values  of  Some  Common  Feeds* 


Feeds 


Digestible  Nutrients 
in  100  lbs. 


Crude 
Pro- 
tein 


Carbo- 
hy- 
drates 


Fat 


Fertilizing  Constitu- 
ents in  1,000  lbs. 


Nitro- 
gen 


Phos- 
phoric 
Acid 


Potash 


Alfalfa  hay , 

Barley 

Clover  hay,  alsike 

Clover  hay,  crimson 

Clover  hay,  red 

Clover  hay,  sweet,  white. . 

Corn,  dent 

Corn,  flint 

Cornmeal 

Corn  silage,  mature 

Corn  stover  (ears  removed 

very  dry) 

Cotton  seed  meal,  prime .  . 

Cowpeas 

Cowpea  hay *. 

Gluten  meal 

Mangels 

Milk,  cows,  whole ^ .  . 

Milk,  skimmed 

Millet  hay,  common 

Oats 

Oat  straw 

Potatoes 

Rye 

Soy  beans 

Sugar  beets 

Timothy  hay 

Wheat 

Wheat  bran 

Whey 


10.6 
9.0 
7.9 
9.7 
7.6 

10.9 
7.5 
7.7 
6.9 
1.1 

2.2 

33.4 

19.4 

13.1 

30.2 

0.8 

3.3 

3.6 

5.0 

9.7 

1.0 

1.1 

9.9 

30.7 

1.2 

3.0 

9.2 

12.5 

0.8 


39.0 
66.8 
36.9 
36.8 
39.3 
38.2 
67.8 
66.1 
69.0 
15.0 

47.8 

24.3 

54.5 

33.7 

43.9 

6.4 

4.9 

5.1 

46.0 

52.1 

42.6 

15.8 

68.4 

22.8 

12.« 

42.8 

67.5 

41.6 

4.7 


0.9 
1.6 
1.1 
1.0 
1.8 
0.7 
4.6 
4.6 
3.5 
0.7 

1.0 
7.9 
1.1 
1.0 
4.4 
0.1 
4.3 
0.2 
1.8 
3.8 
0.9 
0.1 
1.2 
14.4 
0.1 
1.2 
1.5 
3.0 
0.3 


23.8 
18.4 
20.5 
22.6 
20.5 
23.2 
16.2 
16.6 
14.9 
3.4 

9.4 

63.7 

37.8 

30.9 

56.8 

2.2 

5.6 

6.1 

13.3 

19.8 

5.8 

3.5 

18.9 

58.4 

2.6 

9.9 

19.8 

25.6 

1.6 


5.4 
8.5 
7.0 
6.1 
3.9 
6.6 
6.9 
6.8 
6.1 
1.6 

4.5 

26.6 

10.1 

9.6 

5.5 

0.4 

1.9 

2.2 

3.6 

8.1 

2.1 

1.2 

7.3 

13.7 

0.8 

3.1 

8.6 

29.5 

1.2 


22.3 

7.4 

17.4 

22.4 

16.3 

12.6 

4.0 

3.9 

3.7 

4.4 

12.9 

18.0 

14.9 

41.3 

1.2 

2.2 

1.7 

1.7 

21.5 

5.6 

15.0 

5.3 

5.7 

24.7 

3.2 

13.6 

5.3 

16.2 

2.6 


^Complied  from  Feeds  and  Feeding,  by  Henry  and  Morrison. 


INDEX 


Acid  phosphate,  36 
Accounts: 

With  a  cow,  341 

With  a  garden,  135 

With  live  stock,  338 
Agricultural  engineering,  259 
Air: 

Needed  in  soil,  26 

Plant  food  in,  13 
Alfalfa: 

Advantages  of,  108 

Curing,  111 

Cutting,  111 

Feeding  value  of,  109 

Inoculation  of.  110 

Pasturing,  109 

Seed,  109 

Soil  for,  110 

Sowing,  110 
Apple  blight,  158 
Apples: 

Adaptability  of,  151 

Culture  of,  152 

Mulching,  153 

Picking,  154 

Planting  of  trees,  152 

Pruning  of  trees,  153 

Soil  for,  151 

Spraying,  154 

Storage,  155 

Thinning,  154 
Apple  scab,  159 
Army  worm,  162 
Arsenate  of  lead,  159 
Ash,  174,  212 
Asparagus,  139 

Babeo«k  test,  214 
Bacteria: 

Care  against,  311 

In  milk,  213 

On  clover  roots,  104 
Balanced  ra^on,  175 
Barley: 

Ciiltua-e  of,  57 

Harvesting,  57 

Use  of,  57 
Barns,  273 
Beans,  141 
Bedding,  200 
Bees,  256 


Birds,  255 
Blue  grass,  115 
Boll  weevil,  163 
Bookkeeping,  336 
Bordeaux  mixture,  159 
Boys'  and  Girls'  Club,  284 
Breeds: 

Of  cattle,  192 

Of  horses,  177 

Of  poultry,  246 

Of  sheep,  216 

Of  swine,  229 
Brome  grass,  114 
Brood  sow,  233 
Buildings: 

Convenience  of,  111,  274 

Cost  of.  171,  272 

Importance  of,  272 

Light,  170 

Maintenance  of,  274 

Planning  of,  273 

Ventilation  of,  170,  181,  312 
Bull  thistle,  130 
Bulletins,  132,  256,  258 
Burdock,  130 
Butter: 

Making,  343 

Marketing,  295 
Butter-fat,  212,  215 
Cabbage  worm,  162 
Calcium: 

Use  of  in  plants,  34 

Supply  of,  37 
Canada  thistle,  132 
Carbohydrates,  174,  212 
Carbon  dioxide,  13 
Carrots.  94 
Cattle: 

Breeds  of,  192 

Care  and  management  of,  199 

Classes  of,  192 

Disease  of,  199 

Feeding  of,  201 

Pure-bred,  192 

Shelter  for,  199 

Types  of,  192 
Celery,  141 
Chickens,  244,  311 
Chinch  bugs,  162 
Chlorophyll,  13 
Chores,  166 


INDEX 


363 


Churning,  344 
Clay,  11 
Clover: 

Adds  nitrogen  to  soil,  104 

Alsike,  101 

Curing,  106 

Getting  a  catch  of,  102,  333 

In  rotation,  333 

Mammoth,  100 

Medium  red,  100 

Roots  and  bacteria,  103 

Varieties  of,  100 

White,  101 
Clubs:       • 

Boys'  and  Girls',  284 

Farmers',  288 
Cockle,  126 
Codling  moth,  162 
Comfort  of  animals,  236 
Community  activities,  272-284 
Concentrates,  174 
Co-operation,  291,  293,  346 
Corn: 

Climate  for,  61,  77 

Culture  of,  69,  74 

Depth  to  cultivate,  74 

Embryo  of,  65 

For  silage,  86 

Grading  seed,  70 

Importance,  60 

In  rotation,  333,  336 

Parts  of  kernels  of,  64 

Planting,  71 

Rag  doll  tester,  68 

Selection  of  seed,  76,  79 
.  Shape  of  ear,  80 

Size  of  ear,  80 

Size  of  kernels,  62 

Smut,  158 

Storing,  81 

Testing  seed,  66,  67 

Varieties  of,  78 

Yield  of,  60 
Corn  hangers,  85 
Corrosive  sublimate,  160 
Cot  for  hogs,  235 
Cotton: 

Diseases  of,  161 

Picking  and  ginning,  120 

Planting  and  culture,  120 

Soil  for,  120 
County  agents,  302 
Cowpea,  117 
Cows: 

Account  with,  341 

Culling,  216 

Nutrient  requirements  for,  201 


Cows;    Cont'd 

Rations  for,  203 

Succulent  feed  for,  207 

Testing  of,  216 

Types  of,  192  et  seq. 

Water  for,  199 
Cream,  215,  345 
Creamery,  295 
Creep,  235 
Cucumbers,  142 
Cultivated  crops,  60,  324,  326 
Cultivation: 

Depth  of  for  corn,  74 

Of  apple  trees,  152 

Of  corn,  69 

Of  fiber  crops,  120 

Of  potatoes,  93 

Of  raspberries,  150 

Of  strawberries,  147 

Reasons  for,  71 

Results  of  deep,  74 
Cultivator,  75 
Curing  hay,  106 
Curled  dock,  132 
Cutworms,  162 

Dairy  products,  295 
Dandelions,  132 
Digestible  nutrients,  175 
Diseases: 

Of  cattle,  199 

Of  cotton,  161 

Of  grains,  50,  56,  156 

Of  potatoes,  90,  160 
Disking,  28 
Drainage: 

Of  fields,  266 

Of  home  grounds,  310 

Of  roads,  262 

Surface,  267 

Tile,  267 
Drill,  29 
Dry  farming,  24 
Drying  seed  corn,  83 

Educational  advantages,  289 
Eggs,  298 
Ensilage,  208 
Eradication  of  weeds,  130 
Ewes,  222,  226 
Exercise  for  stock,  200 

Farmer,  standing  of.  318 
Farm  home,  305 
Farm  management.  318 
Farmstead: 

Arrangement  of,  315 


364 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


Farmstead:   Cont'd 

Location  of,  315 

Size  of,  315 
Fat,  174 
Feed: 

Change  of,  188 

Comparison  of,  176 

Composition  of,  174,'' 209 

Fall,  23,  238 

Kinds  of,  174 

Requirements,  173 

Selection  of,  173 

Source  of,  173 

Succulent,  207 

Summer,  241 

Value  of,  340,  342 
Fencing: 

Building  of,  280 

Cost  of,  282,  328,  331 

For  sheep,  224 

For  swine,  236 

Investment  in,  279 

Kinds  of,  277 

Posts  for,  278 
Fertilizers: 

Animal  manure,  37 

Amounts  produced,  38 

Complete,  37 

Composition  of,  38 

Need  of,  31 

Plant  food  in,  31 

Uses  of,  34 
Fiber  crops,  120 
Field  crops,  322 
Field  peas,  117,  238 
Fields,  327,  329 
Flax : 

Harvesting,  121 

Planting,  121 

Soil  for,  121 
Flax  wilt,  158 
Flies,  200,  311 
Formaldehyde,  157 
Forage  crops,  116 
Garden: 

Account  with,  135 

Income  from,  134 

Plan  and  preparation  of,  136 

Value  of,  134 
Germination,  44,  66 
Grain  crops,  39,  322,  334 
Grass  crops,  97,  322 
Grasshoppers,  162 
Gravel,  11 

Hay  and  pasture  crops: 
Advantages  of,  97 


Hay  and  pasture  crops:    Cot'd 

Cleaning  crop,  128 

Cock  covers  for,  107,  112 

Cost,  97 

Curing,  106 

Cutting,  105,  113 

Importance  of,  97 
Harrowing,  28 
Harvesting: 

Barley,  57 

Flax,  121 

Oats,  54 

Root  crops,  95 

Sugar  cane,  119        • 

Wheat,  48 
Healthfulness  of  the  home,  310 
Heat  in  the  soil,  27 
Hemp: 

Culture  of,  121 

Soil  for,  121 
Hog  cholera,  232 
Hogging  off  crops,  237,  239 
Hogs.      (See  swine) 
Home,  the,  305 
Honey,  257 
Horses: 

Breeds  of,  177 

Care  and  management  of,  181 

Cost  of  labor  of,  182 

Feeding  of,  184  et  seq. 

Shoeing,  182 

Types  of,  178 
Horse-radish,  139 
Humus,  10 
Hydrogen,  13 

Income  of  American  farmers,  319 

Insect  pests,  162 

Insects: 

Classes  of,  162 

Control  of,  162 

Destroyed  by  plowing,  20 

Habits  of,  162 

Remedies  for,  162 
Interest,  339 
Iron  sulphate,  132 
Irrigation,  268 

Johnson  grass,  115 

Kernels,  62,  et  seq. 
Kinghead,  126 

Labor: 

General,  340 
In  dairying,  342 
With  sheep,  242 
With  swine,  237 


INDEX 


365 


Land  rent,  337 
Lawns,  306 
Legumes,  104 
Lettuce,  140 
Light,  170 
Lime,  34,  37 

Lime-sulphur  mixture,  157 
Live  stock: 

Care  and  management  of,  166 

Classes  of,  166 

Importance  of,  165 

In  relation  to  soil,  165 

Shelter  for,  170 
Loam,  11 

Machinery: 

Investment  m,  270 

Power,  349 

Shelter  for,  271 

Use  of,  271 
Mangels,  94  , 
Manure: 

Amounts  produced,  38 

Composition  of,  38 
Manure  spreader,  92 
Marketing: 

Butter,  295 

Eggs,  298 

Milk,  345 
Meadow,  335 
Melons,  142 
Milk: 

As  human  food,  212 

Care  of,  213 

Composition  of,  212 

Sampling,  217 

Selling,  345 

Sterilizing,  212 

Testing,  214,  217,  352 

Weighing,  216,  362 
Millet.  116 

Miscellanous  crops,  116 
Moisture,  20,  71 
Morning-glory,  132 
Mulch,  72,  153 
Mules.  166 
Mustard  seed,  128 

Nests,  252 
Nitrosen : 

Added  to  soil,  104 

Need  of  in  plants,  32 

Sources  of,  33 
Nodules.  104 
Nutriemts,  175,  201 


Oats: 

Cost  of  production,  55 

Disease  and  insects,  56 

Harvesting,  54 

Importance  of,  53 

In  rotation,  55,  333 

Kinds,  53 

Smut  of,  50,  56,    157 

Soil  for,  53 

Threshing,  54 

Uses  of,  56 
Oils,  174 
Onions.  139 
Orchard,  151 
Orchard  grass,  115 
Outside  feeding,  169 
Overrun,  344 
Oxygen,  13 
Paris  green,  163 
Parsnips,  139 
Pasteurizing  milk,  313 
Pasture: 

Alfalfa,  109 

Benefit  to  soil,  335 

Blue  grass,  242 

Brome  grass,  114,  242 

Field  peas,  242 

Meadow,  97,  335 

Rape,  242 

Red  clover,  242 

Rye,  242 

Timothy,  113 

White  clover,  242 
Peas,  138,  140 
Phosphate  rock,  36 
Phosphorus: 

Need  of  in  plants,  33 

Sources  of,  35 
Pigeon  grass  seed,  128 
Pigweed,  129 
Planning: 

Buildings,  273 

Farms,  327 

Plant  food: 

Amount  of,  15 

Available,  15 

In  fertilizers,  31 

In  the  air,  13 

In  the  soil,  13 

Liberated  by  plowing,  21 

Soluble,  14,  16 
Plant  diseases: 

Loss  from.  156 

Prevalence  of.  156 

Remedies,  for,  156  et  seq. 


366 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


Planting: 

Depth  to  plant,  29 

Time  to  plant,  28 

Plant  structure,  39 
Plant  lice,  162 
Plowing: 

Condition  of  soil  for,  21 

Deep,  24 

Fall,  22 

Objects  of,  19 

Time  for,  21 
Plum  curculio,  162 
Pork  production,  231 
Posts,  278 
Potassium: 

Need  of  in  plants,  34 

Sources  of,  36 
Potatoes: 

Cultivating,  93 

Cutting  seed,  91 

Diseases  of,  90,  160 

Importance  of,  88 

Planting,  92 

Seed,  89 

Soil  for,  91 

Spraying,  93 

Sprouting,  89 
Potato  blight,  161 
Potato  bugs,  162 
Potato  scab,  160 
Potato  wilt,  160 
Poultry : 

Breeds  of,  246 

Care  of,  248 

Feeding,  253 

Houses,  250 

Importance  of,  244 
Price  of  land,  318 
Prizes,  286 
Protein,  174,  212 
Pruning: 

Apple  trees,  153 

Raspberry  bushes,  150 

Quack  grass,  129 

Radishes,  140 

Rag  doll  testei-,  68 

Ragweed,  126,  132 

iiape,  116,  242 

Raspberries: 

Adaptability  of,  148 
Ouitdvation  of,  160 
Planting,  149 
Propagation  of,  148 
Pruning  of,  150 
Son  for.  148 


Raspberries:     Cont'd 

Varieties  of,  148 

Winter  protection  of,  150 
Ration: 

A  good,  206 

A  poor,  205 

Feeding  a,  205 

To  compound  a,  203 
Rations.      (See  feeds,  etc.) 
Redtop,  115 
Rent,  337 
Rhizoctonia,  160 
Rhubarb,  139 
Rice,  118 
Roads: 

Construction  of,  261 

Cost  of,  259 

Earth,  262 

Gravel,  263 

Maintenance  of,  264 

Sandy,  266 

Use  of,  259 
Roosts,  251 
Root  crops: 

Culture  of,  94 

Harvesting,  95 

Importance  of,  94 
Roots,  13,  17,  18,  74,  209 
Rotation  of  crops,     99,    163, 

320,  324,  329,  332,  335 
Roughage,  174,  185,  203 
Rust,  50,  50,  156 
Rutabagas,  94 
Rye: 

Culture  of,  58 

Importance  of,  58 
Rye  grass,  115 

Salt,  199 
Sand.  11 
Sanitation: 

In  the  care  of  milk,  213 

In  the  home,  310 
Scale  insects,  162 
School  gardens,  301 
Schools,  284 
Seed: 

Grading,  44 

Importance  of  good,  40 

Parts  of  a,  41 

Pure.  43  • 

Selection  of,  41 

Test  of  good,  41 

To  remove  weed,  43 
Seed  bed,  26 
Seed  corn: 

Selection  of,  76 


INDEX 


367 


Seed  corn:  Cont'd 

Storing,  82 

Testing,  61 
Shade,  199 
Shade  trees,  307 
.Sheep: 

Care  and  management  of,  223 

Feeding  of,  225 

Fencing  for,  224 

For  fattening,  225 

Shelter  for,  224 

Types  of,  220 
Shelter: 

Cost  of,  341 

For  live  stock,   170,  224,  234, 
250 

For  machinery,  271 
Shocking: 

Oats,  54 

Wheat,  48 
Silage: 

Corn,  86 

Cutting,  88 
Silo: 

Advantages  of,  275 

Cost  of,  276 

Importance  of,  275 

Kinds  of,  276 

Size  of,  277 
Slatted  shelves,  85 
Smut: 

Corn,  158 

Wheat,  50,  157 

Barley,  156 

Oats,  56,  157  v 

Social  advantages,  288 
Soil  moisture,  14 
Soils: 

Classes  of,  10 

Clay,  12 

Loam,  11 

Origin  of,  9 

Parts  of,  9 

Sandy,  12 
Soy  bean,  117' 
Sow,  brood,  233 
Sow  thistle,  132 
Split-log  drag,  264 
Spraying: 

Fruits,  163 

Potatoes,  93 

Weeds,  132 
Squash,  142 
Squash  bugs,  162 
Stacking: 

Oats,  54 

Wheat,  48 


Starch,  174 
Sterilizing  milk,  213 
Storing: 

Apples,  155 

Seed  corn,  82 

Wheat,  49 
Straw,  36,  55 
Strawberries: 

Adaptability  of,  145 

Culture  of,  147 

Planting,  147 

Soil  for,  145 

Varieties  of,  145 
Subsurface  packing,  25 
Succulent  feed,  207 
Succulent  food,  143 
Sugar,  174 
Sugar  beets,  94 
Sugar  cane,  119 
Surface  mulch,  25,  72 
Sweet  corn,  141 
Swine: 

Care  and  management  of. 

Feeding  of,  237 

Fencing  for,  236 

Shelter  for,  234 

Types  of,  229 
System  in  work,  167 

Teachers,  284 

Testing  cows,  216 

Testing  milk,  214,  217,  352 

Threshing,  49,  54 

Tile,  267 

Tillage: 

Objects  of,  19 

Time  for,  21 
Timothy: 

Cutting,  113 

Feed  value  of,  113 
Tobacco  extracts,  163 
Tomatoes,  142 
Tuberculosis,  200 
Turnips,  94 

Vegetable  matter: 

Adding  to  soil,  17 

Decay  of,  17 
Vegetables: 

Insect  pests,  162 

Varieties  of,  138 

Marketing  of,  139 
Ventilation,  170,  181,  312 
Vetch,  118 

Waste  land,  317,  328 
Water  for  cattle,  169,  199 


23] 


ELEMENTS  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


Wax,  174 
Weaning  pigs,  235 
Weeds: 

Classes  of,  129 

Destroyed  by  plowing,  20,  72 

Habits  of,  129 

Mounting,  124 

Seeds,  43,  125,  127 

Specimens  of,  124 

Spraying,  132 

To  eradicate  annual,  130 

To  eradicate  biennial,  130 

To  eradicate  perennial,  132 
Weed  seeds,  43,  125,  127 
Wheat: 

Cost  of  production,  50 

Diseases  and  insects,  50 

Exports  and  imports,  49 

Fertilizers,  46 

Grades,  49 

Harvesting,  48 

Importance,  45 

Kinds,  46 

Place  of,  45 

Prices,  49 

Rotation,  50 


Wheat:     Cont'd 

Seed,  47 

Shocking,  48 

Soil  for,  46 

Sowing,  47 

Stacking,  48 

Storing,  49 

Threshing,  49 

Uses,  50 
Wild  buckwheat,  127 
Wild  oats,  126 
Wild  pea,  127 
Windbreaks: 

Planning  of,  308 

Trees  for,  308 

Value  of,  308 
Wool,  220 

Yield: 

Dependent  on  seed  bed,  26 

Of  corn,  60 

Of  hay,  97 

Of  oats,  53 

Of  potatoes,  88 

Of  wheat,  45 


^^  'fimg 


IVIAY     Xk  1330 


MAR  S21941 


som.7,'29 


'J 


TB  4t)4b^ 


520;')  10 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CAUFORNIA  LIBRARY 


